PhysiologyandFunctional

Morphology
SupplementTextwith:
1)acloserlookatCardiovascularsystem
respiratorypotentialdictatesvirtuallyalllifehistory
characteristicsknowntopartitionorganismsintotheir
respectiveecologicalandevolutionaryniches
(OConnorandClaessens2009)
reproductivebiology,activitypatterns,locomotion,body
size
2)Considerationofadaptationstowithstandcoldand
heat

Homeotherms and
Poikilotherms
40

homeotherms

30
Tb (C)

20

poikilotherms

(bodytemp)

10
10

20

30
Ta ( C)

EnvironmentalTemp

40

Homeotherms

warm-blooded vertebrates- birds &

mammals
Maintain constant Tb
Endothermic (metabolism is source
of body heat)
Normal Tb range is 35-42 degrees C

Advantages of Homeothermy

Can live in a variety of habitats

Can respond rapidly to

environmental stimuli

(Smaller animals react more rapidly

since their metabolic rate is higher)

ToBeEndothermicRequiresRapid
andEfficientDeliveryofOxygento
FuelMetabolism
Inbirdsandmammalscardiovascularand
respiratorysystemshaveevolvedtomeet
needforenhancedexchange,transportand
deliveryofrespiratorygasses(oxygenand
carbondioxide)

EspeciallyatHighElevation

(Scott2011)

Respiration
Theavianlunghasthegreatestknown
relativegasexchangesurfaceareaand
thinnestbarriertooxygendiffusion,andin
combinationwithanatomical
specializationsisthemostefficientlungof
allairbreathingvertebratesatoxygen
extraction(fromQuickandRuben2009)

SeparatenutrientandwasteStreams

AirSacSystem

HowBreathing
Works
Negativepressuredrawsairthrough,could
collapse
Positivepressurepushesairthrough,nocollapse

SeeFig.65intext

CrossCurrentExchange

(Scott2011)

BirdsVersusMammals

(Scott2011)

BellowsMoveAir
Lungsdontmove
Nodiaphragm
Airsacsfillbody
cavity
Ribsasabellows
Uniquethigh
supportsabdominal
airsacs

Sternummovesdown,
Ribsmoveforwardduring
Inspiration

Musclestouncinateprocessesmayenablebreathingwhensternum
cannotbedepressed
(Claessens2009)

HowtoKeepAbdominalairsac
fromcollapsingduringinhalation?
Modernbirdshavewidehips

Greatpelviccrosssectionalarea
EggpassageAND
accommodatelargeairsacs

knee

ankle

Synsacrumandintegrated
thighwithbodywallprovide
bonyandmuscularsupportto
suspendairsacandkeepit
fromcollapsingduring
negativepressureof
inhalation

Thighmassclosertobodycenter(angledup)supportsair
sacanddoesntmovemuchduringwalking

WhendidTheseSpecializations
Evolve?

(Serenoetal.2008)

(Serenoetal.2008)

WhendidTheseSpecializationsEvolve?

(Serenoetal.2008)

StayingWarm
Feathers:increase#1552%,(dependingonspecies)
Downandsemiplumesprovidesinsulation

Feathersfluffingtrapsair

Effectsofoilblob=createsathermalwindow

LayonFat
LargeBodysize(SAtoV)
Vasoconstrict,shiver
Migrate(latitude,altitude)
Burrow,groupup

Thehuddledmasses.

TreeCreepers(European)

Adaptations for Cold Conditions:

avoiding Hypothermia
Hibernation (also has physiological
& behavioral aspects to it)
Allow Tb to approach Ta
Few birds hibernate

Partial hibernators: hummingbirds

(at night)

Adaptations for Cold Conditions:

avoiding Hypothermia
Special Case 1: the Poorwill

Discovered by E.C. Jaeger on Dec 29, 1946 in

the Chuckwalla Mts. of southern California.
Depression in a rock wall, 2.5 feet from ground.

Jaeger,1949

FromJaeger,E.C.1949:Condor51:105109

Adaptations for Cold Conditions:

avoiding Hypothermia
Special case 2: high
latitude penguins

Lives in both
aquatic and
terrestrial worlds

Adaptations for Cold Conditions:

avoiding Hypothermia
Special case 2: penguins

In water,
Chronic problem of heat loss
large temperature gradient-offset by
thick layer feathers, and thick blubber

Adaptations for Cold Conditions:

avoiding Hypothermia
On land, breeding season, birds haul out on
islands off Antarctica
territorial defense= heat production
in water, heat lost easily, not in air on land
breeding activities fall off once TA reaches

54 degrees F.
Flippers (modified wings)- a thermal window

Adaptations for Cold Conditions:

avoiding Hypothermia
Why dont the feet of ducks, geese, gulls, etc
freeze to ice?

Answer: a counter-current mechanism

(arteries and veins next to each other)

CountercurrentMechanism

AvoidingHyperthermia

Adaptations for Hot Conditions:

avoiding Hyperthermia
Birds
Pre-adapted for hot climates-high TB

(4-5 F higher than mammals)

Most birds are neither nocturnal nor

fossorial, so must meet the environment

head-on.

Adaptations for Hot Conditions:

avoiding Hyperthermia
Structural adaptations:
Microevolution of body size
Feathers- same idea as hypothermia
except that you want to reduce air space
COLORLight vs. Dark / Wind vs. Calm
Thermal windows: Bare places on skinbirdsgular pouch, feet, legs, face

Adaptations for Hot Conditions:

avoiding Hyperthermia
Physiological adaptations:
Cardiovascular changes-dilate blood

vessels to send more blood to skin surface;

also increased cardiac output

Evaporative coolingprimary way

Adaptations for Hot Conditions:

avoiding Hyperthermia
Physiological adaptations:
Birds
no sweat glands
evaporate water over lungs, air sacs
and gular pouch (some)
accomplished by: panting, gular
fluttering

EvaporativeCooling
Prolongedexposuretohighambienttemperatures

Hyperthermia
Hyperventilation
Evaporativecooling
Rapidexchangeofair
throughairsacs

vasodilation
Increasedcardiacoutput
Morebloodsentto:
Skinsurface
Feet,wings,gulararea

Bodytemperaturelowers

Adaptations for Hot Conditions:

avoiding Hyperthermia
Physiological adaptations:

Increase water
intake

Seek cool placesshadows,

vegetation to
reduce heat gain

Adaptations for Hot Conditions:

avoiding Hyperthermia
Behavioral adaptations:
Activity patterns:

become less active

be crepuscular
be nocturnal
be active near water
Fossorial habits

Sootytern

AdditionalReferences
Claessens,L.P.A.M.2009.Theskeletalkinematicsoflung
ventilationinthreebasalbirdtaxa(emu,tinamou,andguineafowl).
J.ExperimentalZoology311A:586599.
Quick,D.E.andJ.A.Ruben.2009.Cardioppulmonaryanatomyin
theropoddinosaurs:implicationsfromextantarchosaurs.J.
Morphology270:12321246.
OConnor,P.M.andL.P.A.M.Claessens.2009.Respiratory
evolutioninsauropsids:progressandnewapproaches.J.
ExperimentalZoology311A:549550.
Sereno,P.C.etal.2008.Evidenceforavianintrathoracicairsacsin
anewpredatorydinosaurfromArgentina.PLOSone.3(9).E3303.
Scott,G.R.2011.Elevatedperformance:theuniquephysiologyof
birdsthatflyathighaltitudes.J.Exp.Biol.214:24552462