Transmission Basics: ICSA 733: Week 3

ICSA 733: Week 3
Transmission Basics
Elizabeth Lane Lawley,

Instructor
ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunication (Lawley)
Data Communication Basics

Analog or Digital
Three Components
Data
Signal
Transmission
ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat
Electromagnetic Signals
Function of time
Analog (varies smoothly over time)
Digital (constant level over time,
followed by a change to another level)
Function of frequency
Spectrum (range of frequencies)
Bandwidth (width of the spectrum)
Periodic Signal
Characteristics
Amplitude (A): signal value, measured in
volts
Frequency (f): repetition rate, cycles per
second or Hertz
Period (T): amount of time it takes for
one repetition, T=1/f
Phase (): relative position in time,
measured in degrees
Analog Signaling
amplitude (volts)
represented by sine waves

1 cycle
frequency (hertz)
= cycles per second
phase
difference
time
(sec)
Digital Signaling
amplitude (volts)
represented by square waves or

pulses
1 cycle
frequency (hertz)
= cycles per second
time
(sec)
Digital Text Signaling

Transmission of electronic pulses
representing the binary digits 1 and 0
How do we represent letters,
numbers, characters in binary form?
Earliest example: Morse code (dots
and dashes)
Most common current form: ASCII
ASCII Character Codes

Use 7 bits of data (1 byte) to transmit one
character
7 binary bits has 128 possible outcomes
(0 to 127)
Represents alphanumeric characters, as
well as special characters
Eighth bit in a byte can be used for
formatting; also known as high-order bit
Digital Image Signaling

Pixelization and binary
representation
Code:
00000000
00111100
01110110
01111110
01111000
01111110
00111100
00000000
Why Study Analog?

Telephone system is primarily analog
rather than digital (designed to carry
voice signals)
Low-cost, ubiquitous transmission
medium
If we can convert digital information (1s
and 0s) to analog form (audible tone), it
can be transmitted inexpensively
10
Voice Signals
Easily converted from sound frequencies
(measured in loudness/db) to
electromagnetic frequencies, measured in
voltage
Human voice has frequency components
ranging from 20Hz to 20kHz
For practical purposes, the telephone
system has a narrower bandwidth than
human voice, from 300 to 3400Hz
11
Bandwidth
Width of the spectrum of frequencies
that can be transmitted
if spectrum=300 to 3400Hz,
bandwidth=3100Hz
Greater bandwidth leads to greater costs

Limited bandwidth leads to distortion
Analog measured in Hertz, digital
measured in baud
12
BPS vs. Baud

BPS=bits per second
Baud=# of signal changes per
second
Each signal change can represent
more than one bit, through variations
on amplitude, frequency, and/or
phase
13
Analog Data Choices
14
Digital Data Choices
15
Transmission Choices
Analog transmission
only transmits analog signals, without
regard for data content
attenuation overcome with amplifiers
Digital transmission
transmits analog or digital signals
uses repeaters rather than amplifiers
16
Data, Signals, and

Transmission
A
Data
D
A
A
Transmission
System
Signal
17
Advantages of Digital
Transmission
The signal is exact
Signals can be checked for errors
Noise/interference are easily filtered
out
A variety of services can be offered
over one line
Higher bandwidth is possible with data
compression
18
Analog Encoding
of Digital Data
data encoding and decoding
technique to represent data using the
properties of analog waves
modulation: the conversion of digital
signals to analog form
demodulation: the conversion of
analog data signals back to digital
form
19
Modem
an acronym for modulator-demodulator
uses a constant-frequency signal
known as a carrier signal
converts a series of binary voltage
pulses into an analog signal by
modulating an audible carrier signal
the receiving modem translates the
analog signal back into digital data
20
Methods of Modulation
amplitude modulation (AM) or
amplitude shift keying (ASK)
frequency modulation (FM) or
frequency shift keying (FSK)
phase modulation or phase shift
keying (PSK)
21
Amplitude Shift Keying

(ASK)
In radio transmission, known as
amplitude modulation (AM)
the amplitude (or height) of the sine
wave varies to transmit the ones and
zeros
major disadvantage
telephone lines are very susceptible to
variations in transmission quality that affect
amplitude
22
ASK Illustration
1
23
Frequency Shift Keying

(FSK)
in radio transmission, known as frequency
modulation (FM)
the frequency of the carrier wave varies in
accordance with the signal to be sent
signal is transmitted at constant amplitude
more immune to noise than ASK
requires more analog bandwidth than ASK
24
FSK Illustration
1
25
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

also known as phase modulation (PM)
frequency and amplitude of the carrier
signal are kept constant
the carrier is shifted in phase
according to the input data stream
each phase can have a constant value,
or value can be based on whether or
not phase changes (differential keying)
26
PSK Illustration
27
Differential Phase Shift

Keying (DPSK)
28
Complex Modulations
Combining modulation techniques allows
us to transmit multiple bit values per signal
change (baud)
Increases information-carrying capacity of
a channel without increasing bandwidth
Increased combinations also leads to
increased likelihood of errors
Typically, amplitude and phase modulation
are combined
29
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)
the most common method for
quadbit transfer
combination of 8 different angles in
phase modulation and two
amplitudes of signal
provides 16 different signals, each of
which can represent 4 bits
30
Modulation Illustration
90
135
45
amplitude 1
180
amplitude 2
225
315
ICSA733: Fundamentals of270

Telecommunicat
31
Modulation Uses
CCITT V.22 bis modem
the "bis" qualifier is a French term for
"duo" or "twice"
supports transmission of full-duplex 2400
bps synchronous or asynchronous data
over a switched, 2-Wire, voice circuit
the modulation rate is 600 baud, with
each baud representing four data bits
32
Trellis Coded Modulation

(TCM)
sophisticated mathematics are used
to predict the best fit between the
incoming signal and a large set of
possible combinations of amplitude
and phase changes
a Forward Error Correcting (FEC)
used in the V.32 modem (9600 bps)
and all the higher speed modems
33
Digital Encoding
of Digital Data
Most common, easiest method is
different voltage levels for the two
binary digits
Typically, negative=1 and positive=0
Known as NRZ-L, or nonreturn-to-zero
level, because signal never returns to
zero, and the voltage during a bit
transmission is level
34
Differential NRZ
Differential version is NRZI (NRZ,
invert on ones)
Change=1, no change=0
Advantage of differential encoding is
that it is more reliable to detect a
change in polarity than it is to
accurately detect a specific level
35
Problems With NRZ

Difficult to determine where one bit
ends and the next begins
In NRZ-L, long strings of ones and
zeroes would appear as constant
voltage pulses
Timing is critical, because any drift
results in lack of synchronization and
incorrect bit values being transmitted
36
Biphase Alternatives to NRZ

Require at least one transition per bit
time, and may even have two
Modulation rate is greater, so bandwidth
requirements are higher
Advantages
Synchronization due to predictable transitions
Error detection based on absence of a
transition
37
Manchester Code
Transition in the middle of each bit
period
Transition provides clocking and data
Low-to-high=1 , high-to-low=0
Used in Ethernet
38
Differential Manchester
Midbit transition is only for clocking
Transition at beginning of bit
period=0
Transition absent at beginning=1
Has added advantage of differential
encoding
Used in token-ring
39
Digital Encoding Schemes
40
Transmitting Digital Data

Codes determine what needs to be
transmitted, not how to transmit
Two primary transmission methods
Serial
Parallel
41
Parallel Transmission
sending a character at a time
the components of each character are
transmitted in parallel
common transmission method
between a personal computer and a
printer
multiple wires are required for
transmission
42
Parallel Illustration
43
Serial Transmission
sending bits one after another rather
than several at the same time
requires only one wire to transmit data
slower than parallel transmission
used when transmitting data over a
telephone line as there is only one set
of wires
44
Serial Illustration
45
Asynchronous &
Synchronous Transmission
Concerned with timing issues in serial
communication
How does the receiver know when
the bit period begins and ends?
Small timing difference become more
significant over time if no
synchronization takes place between
sender and receiver
46
Timing of Serial Data

asynchronous transmission
synchronous transmission
47
Asynchronous
Transmission
Data transmitted 1
character at a time
Character format is
1 start & 1+ stop
bit, plus data of 5-8
bits
Character may
include parity bit
Resynchronization
each start bit
Uses simple, cheap
technology
Wastes 20-30% of
bandwidth
Example: VT100
terminal
48
Synchronous Transmission
Large blocks of bits
transmitted without
start/stop codes
Synchronized by clock
signal or clocking data,
usually sent over a
separate wire or
channel
Data framed by
preamble and
postamble bit patterns
More efficient than

asynchronous
Overhead typically
below 5%
Used at higher speeds
than asynchronous
Requires error
checking
Example: IBM3270
terminal
49
Communication Paths
Simplex
Half-Duplex
Full-Duplex
50
Simplex Transmission
only transmit in one direction
rarely used in data communications
e.g., receiving signals from the radio
station or CATV
the sending station has only one
transmitter the receiving station has
only one receiver
51
Simplex Illustration
52
Half Duplex
Communication
data may travel in both directions, but only in
one direction at a time
provides nonsimultaneous two-way
communication
computers use special control signals to
negotiate which system will send data and
which will receive data
the amount of time it takes computers to switch
between sending and receiving is called
turnaround time
53
Half Duplex Illustration
54
Full Duplex Communication

complete two-way simultaneous
transmission
faster than half-duplex
communication because no
turnaround time is needed
requires higher bandwidth
55
Full Duplex Illustration
56
Digital Interfaces
The point at which one device
connects to another
Standards define what signals are
sent, and how
Some standards also define physical
connector to be used
57
RS-232C (EIA 232C)

Uses NRZ-L encoding
Defines two types of interface
DTE: Data Terminal Equipment
DCE: Data Circuit-Terminating
Equipment
We often define entire devices based

on their interface (e.g terminal=DTE,
or modem=DCE)
58
DTE and DCE
59
RS-232C DB-25 Connectors
DB-25 Female
DB-25 Male
For pin assignments,

see page 58 of the textbook
60
RS-232C Examples
Odd Parity
Even Parity
No Parity
61
Initial Handshaking
DTE raises DTR (data terminal ready)
signal to DCE
DCE raises DSR (data set ready) signal
DTE raises RTS (request to send) signal
DCE raises CTS (clear to send) signal
DCE sends a carrier signal
Remote DCE detects carrier and raises
DCD (data carrier detect) signal to DCE
DTE sends data on TD (transmit data)
Completion Handshaking
DCE modulates data onto the carrier
wave
Remote DCE demodulates data onto
RD (receive data)
DTE lowers RTS signal
DCE drops CTS and carrier wave
Remote DCE drops DCD
Transmission is complete
Null Modem Cable

special wiring of an RS-232-C cable
to enable computers to talk to one
another without a modem
Null Modem Cable

SG
DTR
SG
DTR
DSR
DSR
RTS
RTS
CTS
CD
TD
RD
CTS
CD
TD
RD
EIA-232-D
new version of RS-232-C adopted in
1987
improvements in grounding shield,
test and loop-back signals
the prevalence of RS-232-C in use
made it difficult for EIA-232-D to
enter into the marketplace
66
RS-449
an EIA standard that improves on the
capabilities of RS-232-C
provides for a 37-pin connection, cable
lengths up to 200 feet, and data
transmission rates up to 2 million bps
equates with the functional and procedural
portions of R-232-C
the electrical and mechanical specifications are
covered by RS-422 and RS-423
67
Baseband vs. Broadband

Baseband transmission
A single data signal transmitted directly on a
wire (as in RS-232)
Commonly used for LANs
Broadband transmission
Data is sent using a carrier signal
Different frequencies allow multiple
simultaneous signals
Cable TV is a good example
68
Transmission Media
the physical path between
transmitter and receiver
design factors
bandwidth
attenuation: weakening of signal over
distances
interference:
number of receivers
69
Impairments and Capacity

Impairments exist in all forms of data
transmission
Analog signal impairments result in
random modifications that impair
signal quality
Digital signal impairments result in
bit errors (1s and 0s transposed)
70
Transmission Impairments
Attenuation
loss of signal strength over distance
Attenuation Distortion
different losses at different frequencies
Delay Distortion
different speeds for different frequencies
Noise
71
Types of Noise
Thermal (aka white noise)
Uniformly distributed, cannot be
eliminated
Intermodulation
when different frequencies
Crosstalk
Impulse noise
Less predictable
72
Types of Transmission Media

conducted or guided media
use a conductor such as a wire or a fiber
optic cable to move the signal from
sender to receiver
wireless or unguided media

use radio waves of different frequencies
and do not need a wire or cable
conductor to transmit signals
73
Guided Transmission
Media
the transmission capacity depends
on the distance and on whether the
medium is point-to-point or
multipoint
Examples
twisted pair wires
coaxial cables
optical fiber
74
Twisted Pair Wires

consists of two insulated copper wires
arranged in a regular spiral pattern to
minimize the electromagnetic
interference between adjacent pairs
often used at customer facilities and
also over distances to carry voice as
well as data communications
low frequency transmission medium
75
Twisted Pair Wires

two varieties
STP (shielded twisted pair)
the pair is wrapped with metallic foil or
braid to insulate the pair from
electromagnetic interference
UTP (unshielded twisted pair)

each wire is insulated with plastic wrap, but
the pair is encased in an outer covering
76
Twisted Pair Wires

Category 3 UTP
data rates of up to 16mbps are achievable
Category 5 UTP
data rates of up to 100mbps are achievable
more tightly twisted than Category 3 cables
more expensive, but better performance
STP
More expensive, harder to work with
77
Twisted Pair Advantages

inexpensive and readily available
flexible and light weight
easy to work with and install
78
Twisted Pair
Disadvantages
susceptibility to interference and
noise
attenuation problem
For analog, repeaters needed every 56km
For digital, repeaters needed every 23km
relatively low bandwidth (3000Hz)

79
Coaxial Cable (or Coax)

bandwidth of up to 400 MHz
has an inner conductor surrounded
by a braided mesh
both conductors share a common
center axial, hence the term coaxial
80
Coax Layers
outer jacket
(polyethylene)
shield
(braided wire)
insulating material
copper or aluminum
conductor
81
Coax Advantages
higher bandwidth
400 to 600Mhz
up to 10,800 voice conversations
can be tapped easily (pros and cons)

much less susceptible to interference
than twisted pair
82
Coax Disadvantages
high attenuation rate makes it
expensive over long distance
bulky
83
Fiber Optic Cable

relatively new transmission medium
used by telephone companies in place of
long-distance trunk lines
also used by private companies in
implementing local data
communications networks
require a light source with injection laser
diode (ILD) or light-emitting diodes (LED)
84
Fiber Optic Layers

consists of three concentric sections
plastic jacket
glass or plastic fiber core

cladding
85
Fiber Optic Types

multimode step-index fiber
the reflective walls of the fiber move the light
pulses to the receiver
multimode graded-index fiber

acts to refract the light toward the center of
the fiber by variations in the density
single mode fiber

the light is guided down the center of an
extremely narrow core
86
Fiber Optic Signals

fiber optic multimode
step-index
fiber optic multimode
graded-index
fiber optic single mode
87
Fiber Optic Advantages

greater capacity (bandwidth of up to
2 Gbps)
smaller size and lighter weight
lower attenuation
immunity to environmental
interference
highly secure due to tap difficulty
and lack of signal radiation
88
Fiber Optic Disadvantages

expensive over short distance
requires highly skilled installers
adding additional nodes is difficult
89
Wireless (Unguided Media)

Transmission
transmission and reception are achieved
by means of an antenna
directional
transmitting antenna puts out focused beam
transmitter and receiver must be aligned
omnidirectional
signal spreads out in all directions
can be received by many antennas
90
Wireless Examples
terrestrial microwave transmission

satellite transmission
broadcast radio
infrared
91
Terrestrial
Microwave Transmission
uses the radio frequency spectrum, commonly
from 2 to 40 Ghz
transmitter is a parabolic dish, mounted as high
as possible
used by common carriers as well as by private
networks
requires unobstructed line of sight between
source and receiver
curvature of the earth requires stations (called
repeaters) to be ~30 miles apart
92
Applications
long-haul telecommunications
service for both voice and television
transmission
short point-to-point links between
buildings for closed-circuit TV or a
data link between LANs
bypass application
93
Advantages
no cabling needed between sites
wide bandwidth
multichannel transmissions
94
Disadvantages
line of sight requirement
expensive towers and repeaters
subject to interference such as
passing airplanes and rain
95
Satellite
a microwave relay station in space
can relay signals over long distances
geostationary satellites
remain above the equator at a height of
22,300 miles (geosynchronous orbit)
travel around the earth in exactly the
time the earth takes to rotate
96
Satellite Transmission
Links
earth stations communicate by sending
signals to the satellite on an uplink
the satellite then repeats those signals
on a downlink
the broadcast nature of the downlink
makes it attractive for services such as
the distribution of television
programming
97
Process
satellite
transponder
dish
dish
22,300 miles
uplink station
downlink station
98
Applications
television distribution
a network provides programming from a
central location
direct broadcast satellite (DBS)
long-distance telephone transmission

high-usage international trunks
private business networks

99
Principal Satellite
Transmission Bands
C band: 4(downlink) - 6(uplink) GHz
the first to be designated
Ku band: 12(downlink) -14(uplink) GHz

rain interference is the major problem
Ka band: 19(downlink) - 29(uplink) GHz

equipment needed to use the band is still
very expensive
100
Satellite Advantages
can reach a large geographical area
high bandwidth
cheaper over long distances
101
Satellite Disadvantages
high initial cost
susceptible to noise and interference
propagation delay
102

Transmission Basics: ICSA 733: Week 3

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ICSA 733: Week 3

Elizabeth Lane Lawley,

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunication (Lawley)

Data Communication Basics

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

represented by sine waves

represented by square waves or

Digital Text Signaling

ASCII Character Codes

Digital Image Signaling

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Why Study Analog?

Greater bandwidth leads to greater costs

BPS vs. Baud

Analog Data Choices

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Digital Data Choices

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Data, Signals, and

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Amplitude Shift Keying

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Frequency Shift Keying

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Differential Phase Shift

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

ICSA733: Fundamentals of270

Trellis Coded Modulation

Problems With NRZ

Biphase Alternatives to NRZ

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Digital Encoding Schemes

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Transmitting Digital Data

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Timing of Serial Data

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

More efficient than

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Half Duplex Illustration

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Full Duplex Communication

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

Full Duplex Illustration

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

RS-232C (EIA 232C)

We often define entire devices based

DTE and DCE

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat

RS-232C DB-25 Connectors

For pin assignments,

Null Modem Cable

ICSA733: Fundamentals of Telecommunicat