OLD HABITS DIE HARD:

DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESISTANCE TO CHANGE SCALE

Shaul Oreg Cornell University
School of Industrial and Labor Relations

Study 1 Exploring RTC

Studies 2 & 3 Structure and Construct Validations

44 items generated for the following aspects of RTC:

Preference for low levels of stimulation
Difficulty in changing ones mind
Increased stress and uneasiness in response to change
Avoidance of losing face
Focus on short-term inconveniences involved in change
Resistance to losing control

Method: 197 Cornell university employees (Faculty and Staff)

Method
222 participants (46% Female, 57% Students, M(Age)=31, SD=13)

Abstract
The purpose of the study was to establish a scale for the
measurement of the dispositional inclination to resist
changes. Factor structure and reliability analyses of the
scale indicate a four-facet trait: routine-seeking,
emotional reaction to imposed change, cognitive rigidity,
and short-term focus. Analyses of data collected from 4
independent samples provided convergent, divergent
and initial predictive validities to the scale.

Resistance to Change (RTC):

Four factors: (RTC reliability=.92)

General attitude/Routine Seeking (r=.89)

The Missing Link:

Locus of Control
Psychological
Resilience

Need for
Achievement

Risk Aversion

Attitude Toward
Specific change

Performance &
Satisfaction

In both studies the four-facet model yielded good fit to the data.

Study 2
Study 3

2/df
1.59
1.53

CFA Fit Indeces

GFI CFI RMSEA RTC
.922 .945
.055
.87
.912 .935
.060
.87

RRTC
.75
.74

Reliabilities
ERTC CRTC
.71
.71
.75
.83

STRTC
.69
.74

* All items loaded significantly on their expected factors

RTC & Personality Variables Intercorrelations

RTC

Emotional
Reaction
(ERTC)

Cognitive
Rigidity
(CRTC)

RoutineSeeking
(RRTC)

Short-Term
Focus
(STF-RTC)

ERTC

.296(**)

.454(**)

.594(**)

Cognitive rigidity (r=.71)

CRTC

.296(**)

.212(*)

0.169

RRTC

.454(**)

.212(*)

.512(**)

STF-RTC

.594(**)

0.169

.512(**)

-.482(**)

-.400(**)

-0.153

-.583(**)

-.268(**)

-0.069

-0.011

.222(*)

-.256(**)

-.234(**)

Risk Aversion

.470(**)

.467(**)

0.099

Dogmatism

.284(**)

.220(*)

.206(*)

0.131

.270(**)

Self-Esteem

-0.168

-0.145

0.167

-.269(**)

-.317(**)

Short-term focus (r=.68)

Sensation Seeking
Generalized Self Efficacy

Locus of Control
Tolerance for Ambiguity

Factor
1

General Attitude/Routine Seeking (RRTC) (Eigenvalue=8.9; 38.7% variance explained)

Extraversion
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness

.455(**)

.377(**)

0.111

0.15

.189(*)

-0.068

0.018

-.421(**)

-.371(**)

-0.002

-.555(**)

-.342(**)

-0.156

-0.106

0.107

-.285(**)

-.221(*)

-0.065

-0.021

-0.121

0.063

-0.113

0.118

0.097

0.142

0.088

I'd rather be bored than surprised.

.83

Openness to Experience

-.187(*)

-0.145

-0.057

-.205(*)

-0.138

Generally, change is good.

.83

Neuroticism

.283(**)

.333(**)

-0.041

.261(**)

.325(**)

I'll take a routine day over a day full of unexpected events any time.

.76

0.02

0.015

0.013

-0.017

0.051

Whenever my life forms a stable routine, I look for ways to change it.

.69

I prefer having a stable routine to experiencing changes in my life.

.57

I generally consider changes to be a negative thing.

.50

I like to do the same old things rather than try new and different ones.

.50

I like to experience novelty and change in my daily routine.

.49

Physical Development

Study 4 Predictive Validity

Method: 44 psychology undergraduates (73% Female, M(Age)=20, SD=1.2)

Emotional Reaction (ERTC) (Eigenvalue=1.9; 8% variance explained)

If I were to be informed that there's going to be a significant change regarding the way
things are done at work, I would probably feel stressed.

.90

If I were to be informed that there is going to be a change in one of my assignments at

work, prior to knowing what the change actually is, it would probably stress me out.

.86

When I am informed of a change of plans, I tense up a bit.

.70

When things dont go according to plans, it stresses me out.

.68

If my boss changed the criteria for evaluating employees, it would probably make me feel
uncomfortable even if I thought I'd do just as well without having to do any extra work.

.64

If in the middle of the work year, I were to be informed that there's going to be a change in
the schedule of deadlines, prior to knowing what the change actually is, I would probably
presume that the change is for the worse.

.63

Participants filled out RTC and personality questionnaires followed by an

Enrollment Procedures Questionnaire in which respondents report whether or not
theyve made any changes to their course schedules during the first few weeks of
classes.

Changing plans seems like a real hassle to me.

.75

When someone pressures me to change something, I tend to resist it even if I think the
change may ultimately benefit me.

.68

Once I've made plans, I'm not likely to change them.

.44

Often, I feel a bit uncomfortable even about changes that may potentially improve my life.

Results
Only RTC was significant in predicting students choice to make changes to their
schedules (B=-1.3, S.E.=.6, p=0.04; -2LL = 34; Model 2 = 5.12, df=1, p=0.024).

.42

Conclusions
The RTC exhibits a stable four-facet structure

Cognitive Rigidity (CRTC) (Eigenvalue=1.2; 5% variance explained)

I don't change my mind easily.

.74

I often change my mind.

.71

My views are very consistent over time.

.67

* Loadings lower than 0.3 are not listed.

-0.024

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Short-Term Focus (STRTC) (Eigenvalue=1.3; 5.6% variance explained)

Dispositional
Resistance to Change

Results of Confirmatory Factor Analyses

Emotional reaction to imposed change (r=.86)

Manifestation of RTC include increased anxiety and

stress, slowdowns, general inefficiency at work and in
extreme cases even deliberate sabotage.

134 ILR undergraduates (54% Female, M(Age)=19.5, SD=1.4)

Evidence of Convergent and Discriminant Validities

Results of Exploratory Factor Analysis

Factor loadings for final item pool

Any conduct that serves to maintain the status quo in

the face of pressure to alter the status quo (Zaltman &
Duncan, 1977).
In this study, resistance to change is defined as a
general negative attitude towards change.

(68% Female, 69% Staff, M(Age)=42, SD=11.5)

RTC is associated with theoretically related personality traits (e.g., sensationseeking, tolerance for ambiguity, dogmatism).
It does not associate with constructs with which it is not expected to relate (e.g.,
physical development value, agreeableness).
RTC predicted real-life change behavior in a course-enrollment context