The Research Process

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Sociological Research > The Research Process
The Research Process

Defining the Problem
Reviewing the Literature
Formulating the Hypothesis
Determining the Research Design
Defining the Sample and Collecting Data
Analyzing Data and Growing Conclusions
Preparing the Research Report
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Defining the Problem

The first step of the scientific method is to ask a question, describe a problem,
and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to
study within the context of a particular test but also broad enough to have a more
general practical or theoretical merit.
For many sociologists, the goal is to conduct research which may be applied
directly to social policy and welfare, while others focus primarily on refining the
theoretical understanding of social processes. Subject matter ranges from the
micro level to the macro level.
Like other sciences, sociology relies on the systematic, careful collection of
measurements or counts of relevant quantities to be considered valid. Given that
sociology deals with topics that are often difficult to measure, this generally
The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in

Research
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involves operationalizing relevant terms.
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Reviewing the Literature

Literature reviews showcase researchers' knowledge and understanding of the
existing body of scholarship that relates to their research questions.
A thorough literature review demonstrates the ability to research and synthesize.
Furthermore, it provides a comprehensive overview of what is and is not known,
and why the research in question is important to begin with.
Literature reviews offer an explanation of how the researcher can contribute
toward the existing body of scholarship by pursuing their own thesis or research
question.
Library Research
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Formulating the Hypothesis

Hypotheses are testable explanations of a problem, phenomenon, or observation.
Both quantitative and qualitative research involve formulating a hypothesis to
address the research problem.
Hypotheses that suggest a causal relationship involve at least one independent
variable and at least one dependent variable; in other words, one variable which
is presumed to affect the other.
An independent variable is one whose value is manipulated by the researcher or
experimenter.
A dependent variable is a variable whose values are presumed to change as a
result of changes in the independent variable.

Research
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Determining the Research Design

Research design defines the study type, research question, hypotheses,
variables, and data collection methods. Some examples of research designs
include descriptive, correlational, and experimental. Another distinction can be
made between quantitative and qualitative methods.
Sociological research can be conducted via quantitative or qualitative methods.
Quantitative methods are useful when a researcher seeks to study large-scale
patterns of behavior, while qualitative methods are more effective when dealing
with interactions and relationships in detail.
Quantitative methods include experiments, surveys, and statistical analysis,
among others. Qualitative methods include participant observation, interviews,
and content analysis.

Research
An interpretive framework is one that seeks to understand the social world from
the perspective of participants.
Although sociologists often specialize in one approach, many sociologists use a
complementary combination of design types and research methods in their
research. Even in the same study a researcher may employ multiple methods.
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Defining the Sample and Collecting Data

It is important to determine the scope of a research project when developing the
question. The choice of method often depends largely on what the researcher
intends to investigate. Quantitative and qualitative research projects require
different subject selection techniques.
It is important to determine the scope of a research project when developing the
question. While quantitative research requires at least 30 subjects to be
considered statistically significant, qualitative research generally takes a more indepth approach to fewer subjects.
For both qualitative and quantitative research, sampling can be used. The stages
of the sampling process are defining the population of interest, specifying the
sampling frame, determining the sampling method and sample size, and

Research
sampling and data collecting.

There are various types of samples, including probability and nonprobability
samples. Examples of types of samples include simple random samples,
stratified samples, cluster samples, and convenience samples.
Good data collection involves following the defined sampling process, keeping
the data in order, and noting comments and non-responses. Errors and biases
can result in the data. Sampling errors and biases are induced by the sample
design. Non-sampling errors can also affect results.
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Analyzing Data and Growing Conclusions

Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming, and modeling
data with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and
supporting decision making. Data analysis is a process, within which several
phases can be distinguished.
One way in which analysis can vary is by the nature of the data. Quantitative data
is often analyzed using regressions. Regression analyses measure relationships

between dependent and independent variables, taking the existence of unknown
parameters into account.
Qualitative data can be coded--that is, key concepts and variables are assigned a
shorthand, and the data gathered are broken down into those concepts or
Linear Regression
variables. Coding allows sociologists to perform a more rigorous scientific analysis
of the data.
Sociological data analysis is designed to produce patterns. It is important to
remember, however, that correlation does not imply causation; in other words, just
because variables change at a proportional rate, it does not follow that one
variable influences the other.
Without a valid design, valid scientific conclusions cannot be drawn. Internal
validity concerns the degree to which conclusions about causality can be made.
External validity concerns the extent to which the results of a study are
generalizable.
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Preparing the Research Report

Like any research paper, a sociological research report typically consists of a
literature review, an overview of the methods used in data collection, and
analysis, findings, and conclusions.
A literature review is a creative way of organizing what has been written about a
topic by scholars and researchers.
The methods section is necessary to demonstrate how the study was conducted,
including the population, sample frame, sample method, sample size, data
collection method, and data processing and analysis.
In the findings and conclusion sections, the researcher reviews all significant
findings, notes and discusses all shortcomings, and suggests future research.

Research
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Appendix
Sociological Research
Key terms
bias The difference between the expectation of the sample estimator and the true population value, which reduces the
representativeness of the estimator by systematically distorting it.
causation The act of causing; also the act or agency by which an effect is produced.
correlation A reciprocal, parallel or complementary relationship between two or more comparable objects.
data collection Data collection is a term used to describe a process of preparing and collecting data.
dependent variable In an equation, the variable whose value depends on one or more variables in the equation.
disciplinary Of or relating to an academic field of study.
essay A written composition of moderate length exploring a particular issue or subject.
hypothesis Used loosely, a tentative conjecture explaining an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be
tested by further observation, investigation, or experimentation.
independent variable In an equation, any variable whose value is not dependent on any other in the equation.
literature review A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge including
substantive findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic.
methodology A collection of methods, practices, procedures, and rules used by those who work in some field.
operational definition A showing of something such as a variable, term, or object in terms of the specific process or set of
validation tests used to determine its presence and quantity.
operationalization In humanities, operationalization is the process of defining a fuzzy concept so as to make the concept
clearly distinguishable or measurable and to understand it in terms of empirical observations.
qualitative methods Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in
the social sciences, but also in market research and further contexts. Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth
understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and
how of decision making, not just what, where, and when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often needed than
large samples.
quantitative Of a measurement based on some quantity or number rather than on some quality.
quantitative methods Quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of social phenomena via statistical,
mathematical, or computational techniques.
Regression analysis In statistics, regression analysis includes many techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables,
when the focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. More specifically,
regression analysis helps one understand how the typical value of the dependent variable changes when any one of the
independent variables is varied, while the other independent variables are held fixed.
sample A subset of a population selected for measurement, observation or questioning, to provide statistical information about
the population.
scientific method A method of discovering knowledge about the natural world based in making falsifiable predictions
(hypotheses), testing them empirically, and developing peer-reviewed theories that best explain the known data.
Theses A dissertation or thesis is a document submitted in support of candidature for an academic degree or professional
qualification presenting the author's research and findings. The term thesis is also used to refer to the general claim of an
essay or similar work.
Linear Regression
This graph illustrates random data points and their linear regression.
Wikipedia. "Linear regression." Public domain http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Linear_regression.svg View on Boundless.com
Qualitative versus Quantitative Methods

These two researchers are debating the relative merits of using qualitative or quantitative methods to study social phenomena such as the learning
processes of children.
Correlation, Causation, and Spurious Relationships

This mock newscast gives three competing interpretations of the same survey findings and demonstrates the dangers of assuming that correlation
implies causation.
Coding Qualitative Data

Qualitative data can be coded, or sorted into categories. Coded data is quantifiable. In this bar chart, help requests have been coded and categorized so
we can see which types of help requests are most common.
Wikimedia. "Help question coding - help desk." Public domain http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Help_question_coding_-_help_desk.PNG
Operationalizing Variables
This video discusses what it means to operationalize a variable using the example of "good health. "
Library Research
Good literature reviews require exhaustive research. Online resources make this process easier, but researchers must still sift through stacks in
libraries.
Wikimedia. "SanDiegoCityCollegeLearingRecourceCity-bookshelf." CC BY
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SanDiegoCityCollegeLearingRecourceCity-bookshelf.jpg View on Boundless.com
The Scientific Method is an Essential Tool in Research

This image lists the various stages of the scientific method.
Connexions. "Approaches to Sociological Research." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m42796/latest/?collection=col11407/latest View on Boundless.com



The scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge.

Collecting Data
Natural scientists collect data by measuring and recording a sample of the thing they're studying, such as plants or soil. Similarly, sociologists must
collect a sample of social information, often by surveying or interviewing a group of people.
Wikimedia. "Data Collection (G.L.O.R.I.A.)(4427417055)." CC BY http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Data_Collection_(G.L.O.R.I.A.)_(4427417055).jpg
Which of the following statements about the definition of problems

is NOT true?
A) The choice of methods and data depend on the nature of the research
question
B) Only macro level subject matters require the definition of research
questions
C) The research topic should neither be too narrow (relevance) nor too
broad (operability)
D) Defining a problem or research question constitutes the first step of
the scientific method
Which of the following statements about the definition of problems

is NOT true?
A) The choice of methods and data depend on the nature of the research
question
B) Only macro level subject matters require the definition of research
questions
C) The research topic should neither be too narrow (relevance) nor too
broad (operability)
D) Defining a problem or research question constitutes the first step of
the scientific method
Boundless - LO. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com/
Which statement provides the best operational definition of

"childhood obesity"?
A) Children who eat unhealthy foods and spend too much time watching
television and playing video games
B) A distressing trend that can lead to health issues including type 2
diabetes and heart disease
C) The tendency of children today to weigh more than children of earlier
generations
D) Body weight at least 20% higher than a healthy weight for a child of
that height
Which statement provides the best operational definition of

"childhood obesity"?
A) Children who eat unhealthy foods and spend too much time watching
television and playing video games
B) A distressing trend that can lead to health issues including type 2
diabetes and heart disease
C) The tendency of children today to weigh more than children of earlier
generations
D) Body weight at least 20% higher than a healthy weight for a child of
that height
Saylor OER. "Electives Saylor.org Free Online Courses Built by Professors." CC BY 3.0 http://www.saylor.org/majors/Electives/
Literature reviews are used for all of the following reasons

EXCEPT
A) They convey what a researcher has learned through a careful reading
of existing scholarship
B) They allow researchers to demonstrate their ability to find significant
sources
C) They provide a detailed explanation of the study's research design and
methodology
D) They demonstrate the researchers familiarity with the existing body of
knowledge
Literature reviews are used for all of the following reasons

EXCEPT
A) They convey what a researcher has learned through a careful reading
of existing scholarship
B) They allow researchers to demonstrate their ability to find significant
sources
C) They provide a detailed explanation of the study's research design and
methodology
D) They demonstrate the researchers familiarity with the existing body of
knowledge
Which of the following statements about scientific hypotheses is

NOT true?
A) A hypothesis is an assumption or suggested explanation about how
two or more variables are related
B) Strong guidelines for the production of new hypotheses are meant to
assure their scientific validity
C) A useful hypothesis will use deductive reasoning to make predictions
that can be assessed
D) A hypothesis will provide a causal explanation or propose some
association between two variables
Which of the following statements about scientific hypotheses is

NOT true?
A) A hypothesis is an assumption or suggested explanation about how
two or more variables are related
B) Strong guidelines for the production of new hypotheses are meant to
assure their scientific validity
C) A useful hypothesis will use deductive reasoning to make predictions
that can be assessed
D) A hypothesis will provide a causal explanation or propose some
association between two variables
Sociological studies test relationships in which change in one

____ causes change in another.
A) test subject
B) behavior
C) variable
D) operational definition
Sociological studies test relationships in which change in one

____ causes change in another.
A) test subject
B) behavior
C) variable
D) operational definition
In a study, a group of 10 year old boys are fed doughnuts every

morning for a week and then weighed to see how much weight
they gained. Which factor is the dependent variable?
A) The weight gained
B) The doughnuts
C) The boys
D) The duration of a week
In a study, a group of 10 year old boys are fed doughnuts every

morning for a week and then weighed to see how much weight
they gained. Which factor is the dependent variable?
A) The weight gained
B) The doughnuts
C) The boys
D) The duration of a week
All of the following statements pertain to the use of qualitative

methods EXCEPT
A) They are often associated with an interpretive and more descriptive
framework
B) They are often used to develop a deeper understanding of a particular
phenomenon
C) They often deliberately give up on quantity in order to reach a greater
depth in analysis
D) They are generally useful when a researcher seeks to study largescale patterns of behavior
All of the following statements pertain to the use of qualitative

methods EXCEPT
A) They are often associated with an interpretive and more descriptive
framework
B) They are often used to develop a deeper understanding of a particular
phenomenon
C) They often deliberately give up on quantity in order to reach a greater
depth in analysis
D) They are generally useful when a researcher seeks to study largescale patterns of behavior
Sampling methods where some elements of the population have

no chance of selection or where the probability of selection can't
be accurately determined are called
A) non-probability sampling
B) stratified sampling
C) probability sampling
D) random sampling
Sampling methods where some elements of the population have

no chance of selection or where the probability of selection can't
be accurately determined are called
A) non-probability sampling
B) stratified sampling
C) probability sampling
D) random sampling
The application of statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques

to extract and classify information from textual sources is called
A) Predictive analytics
B) Regression analysis
C) Coding
D) Text analytics
The application of statistical, linguistic, and structural techniques

to extract and classify information from textual sources is called
A) Predictive analytics
B) Regression analysis
C) Coding
D) Text analytics
Studying sociology helps people analyze data because they

learn:
A) to apply statistics
B) interview techniques
C) to generate theories
D) All of the answers
Studying sociology helps people analyze data because they

learn:
A) to apply statistics
B) interview techniques
C) to generate theories
D) All of the answers
Which of the following is NOT a property of a literature review?
A) It places the formation of research questions in their historical context

B) It discusses the data used and demonstrates how the study was
conducted
C) It identifies the list of the authors that are engaged in similar work
D) It indicates the theoretical framework with which the author is working
Which of the following is NOT a property of a literature review?
A) It places the formation of research questions in their historical context

B) It discusses the data used and demonstrates how the study was
conducted
C) It identifies the list of the authors that are engaged in similar work
D) It indicates the theoretical framework with which the author is working
Attribution
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http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Research_Methods/Reading_and_Writing_Social_Research#Goals_to_Meet_When_Writing_a_
Literature_Review
Wiktionary. "disciplinary." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/disciplinary
Wikipedia. "Theses." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theses
Wiktionary. "essay." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/essay
Wikispaces. "Center For Collaborative Action - Review Literature." CC BY-SA http://ccar.wikispaces.com/Review+Literature
Wikibooks. "Social Research Methods/Reading and Writing Social Research." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Social_Research_Methods/Reading_and_Writing_Social_Research
Wikispaces. "Center For Collaborative Action - Review Literature." CC BY-SA http://ccar.wikispaces.com/Review+Literature
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Wikipedia. "Sociology." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology
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Wiktionary. "operational definition." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/operational+definition
Connexions. "Approaches to Sociological Research." CC BY 3.0 http://cnx.org/content/m42796/latest/?collection=col11407/latest
Wikibooks. "Introduction to Sociology/Sociological Methods." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Sociology/Sociological_Methods#Characterization
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Wiktionary. "bias." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bias
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Wikipedia. "data collection." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/data%20collection
Wikipedia. "Sampling (statistics)." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)
Wikipedia. "Social research." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_research#Methodology
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Sociology/Sociological_Methods#Quantitative_and_Qualitative
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Wikipedia. "Data analysis." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_analysis
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Sociological Research > The Research Process