Chapter 8

External Environments
and Accountability of
Schools
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Selected External Influences and

Constituencies for School Districts
Political and
Legal Patterns

Demographic
Characteristics
Taxpayers

Societal
Conditions

Parents

Colleges/
Universities

Educational
Associations

Economic and
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011
Market Forces

Unions

School
District

Regulatory
Agencies

Legislatures
Accrediting
Agencies
Information
Technologies

Cultural
Values

Two Perspectives on Environments

ResourceDependencePerspective
Environmentalresources:Fiscal,Personnel,Information,Products
Environmentalresources:SimpleorComplex
Availabilityofresources:ScarcetoMunificence
Dependence:NeedandAvailability
Decisionmakers:Viewtheenvironmentasaplacetogainscarceresources
fortheorganization
InstitutionalPerspective
Limitedemphasisongoals,effectiveness,andefficiency
Schools:Constrainedbyotherinstitutionsofsociety
Administrators:Constrainedbybroaderinstitutions
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Resource-Dependence Perspective
Dependenceischaracterizedastheextentoftheneedforaresourceandits
availability.
Itisdirectlyrelatedtotheneedforresourcescontrolledbyotherorganizations.
Suppliersgainpowertodecidewhetherschoolsgetresourcestheyneedand
determineiftheschoolscanusetheresourcesthewaytheywant.
Iforganizationsareunabletogenerateresourcesinternally,theymustenterinto
externalexchangeswhichmayconsumevitalresourcesand/ordemandchanges
fromtheorganization.(Pfeffer,1982,1997)

W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Resource-Dependence Perspective
Resource Continuum

Munificence

Scarcity

Competition for
resources is fierce
Zero-sum game
Limited to basic
academic and
extracurricular
programming

W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Survival is easy
Pursue wide-ranging
goals
Abundant curricular
and extracurricular
programs

Administering Task Environments

Uncertainty and dependency threaten or constrain autonomy and drive change;

thus, organizations must cope.
Coping Strategies:
Buffering
Planning and forecasting
Boundary spanning
Adjusting operations
Accommodating structure

W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

The Environment-Structure Fit

Change the Structure to fit the
Environment
If the environment is stable, a mechanistic structure is an effective
accommodation.
If the environment is unstable, then an organic structure is the better
fit
If the environment is stable and the organizational structure is
organic, a dysfunctional flexibility emerges.
If the environment is unstable and the structure is mechanistic, a
dysfunctional rigidity is produced.
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Accommodating Structure to Environmental

Change

W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Administering Task Environments

Interorganizationalcopingstrategies
Partnerships
Cooptation
Politicallobbying
Poolingresources

W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Institutional Perspective
Institutionsaremoreorlessagreeduponsetof
rulesthatcarrymeaningforanddeterminethe
actionsofsomepopulationofactors.
Institutionalenvironmentsaresymbolicand
culturalinnature.
Importantideasincludeconformity,diversity,
andstability

W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Institutional Perspective
TypesofConformity
Coercivepressuresofgovernmentmandatesand
inducements
Imitativeadoptingstandardresponsesfromother
sourcestoreduceuncertaintyandgainlegitimacy
Normativeprofessionalstandardsandcodesare
spreadacrossorganizations

W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Institutional Perspective
Stabilizingforcesineducation:
Centralizedgovernment,professionalassociations,and
coalitionsstandardizeoperatingproceduresandprovidestability
(Meyer&Rowan,1977)
Environmentaldemands,characteristicsofinputsandoutputs,
technicalprocessesbroughtunderjurisdictionofinstitutional
meaningsandcontrol
Supportguaranteedbyagreementsratherthandependentupon
performance.

W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Administering Institutional Environments

Bufferingstrategies
Decoupling
Managingtheimage
Boundaryspanningstrategies
Categoricalconformity
Structuralconformity
Proceduralconformity

Educational Administration

Hoy, 2003

Accountability

Accountability plans generally include three components:

Standards to identify the subject matter knowledge and skills to be

learned.

Tests aligned with the standards.

Consequences of differing levels of goal attainment.

W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Accountability and Reform

The drive for accountability is based on three underlying

principles:
Schools should be held accountable for higher standards of
performance.
Schools should be provided assistance to build their capacities for
delivering improved education.
Schools must increase the quality and quantity of their performance
outcomes, especially student achievement.
W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Federal Reform Initiatives

TheNoChildLeftBehindAct
AYPAcademicYearlyProgress
EBPEvidenceBasedPractice
ScientificallyBasedResearchtoinformpractice
RacetotheTop
AdoptingStandards
BuildingDataSystems
Recruitinganddevelopingeffectiveteachersandprincipals
Turningaroundourlowestachievingschools.

W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Campbells Law

Themoreanyquantitativesocialindicatorisusedforsocialdecisionmaking,the
moreitwilldistortandcorrupttheverysocialprocessesitisintendedtomonitor.
Earlywarningtestinginelementaryschoolsmaypushoutstudentswhoarelikely
tofailthetestbecauseboththeschoolandstudentsbelievethatthesestudentsarea
poorbetforfinishinghighschool.Thisisgoodexampleoflookinggoodbutfailing.
Ifaccountabilitypracticesaretobeeffective,theymustshunshorttermsuccesses
infavorofrigoroussystemicchangesthatactuallyimproveschools.

W.K.Hoy2003,2008,2011

Practical Imperatives

Keep organizational structures flexible: It is imperative to respond quickly to

environmental constraints.

Nurture healthy relations with local groups and agencies: Parental groups and local
organizations are important aspects of the immediate environment.

Engage the environment: It presents both constraints and opportunities.

Develop internal and external coping strategies: Buffering and bridging are two
general strategies to cope positively with the external environment.

Recognize that schools are institutions: Schools mirror the norms, values, and ideology
of the broader society.

Develop fair accountability systems for teachers: Accountability is an organizational

reality.

Ensure that tests are aligned with standards: Clear and rational alignment limits
conflict and improves success.

Be open to constructive change: Change and reform are integral parts of

contemporary schooling.

Beware of the dysfunctional consequences of high-stakes testing: A focus on

standardized test scores can encourage cheating and limit poor students prospects for
success.

Seek abstract resources such as neighborhood affiliations or school culture: Abstract

resources are more potent than simple ones in school improvement.

Organic vs Mechanistic Structures

Mechanistic

Organic

Individual specialization:
Employees work separately
and specialize in one task

Joint Specialization:
Employees work together and
coordinate tasks

Simple integrating mechanisms:

Hierarchy of authority well-defined

Complex integrating mechanisms:

task forces and teams are primary
integrating mechanisms

Centralization:
Decision-making kept as high as possible.
Most communication is vertical.

Decentralization:
Authority to control tasks is delegated.
Most communication lateral

Standardization:
Extensive use made of rules & Standard
Operating Procedures
Much written communication

Mutual Adjustment:
Face-to-face contact for coordination.
Work process tends to be unpredictable
Much verbal communication

Informal status in org based on size of

empire

Informal status based on perceived

brilliance

Organization is a network of positions,

corresponding to tasks. Typically each
person corresponds to one task

Organization is network of persons or

teams. People work in different capacities
simultaneously and over time