Chapter2 PhysicalLayer

The Physical Layer
Properties of media
Wires, fiber optics, wireless
Simple signal propagation

Bandwidth, attenuation, noise
Modulation schemes and multiplexing

Representing bits, noise
Fundamental limits
Nyquist, Shannon
Satellite Communication
Public Switched Telephone Network
Mobile Telephone System
Cable Television
The Physical Layer
The Physical Layer

Foundation on which other layers build
Properties of wires, fiber, wireless limit what the network
can do
Concerns how signals are used to transfer message bits
over a link
Wires etc. carry analog signals
We want to send digital bits
10110
Signal
10110
Transmission medium
Media propagate signals that carry bits of information
Media have different properties, hence performance
Reality check (Storage media)
Send data on tape / disk / DVD for a high bandwidth link
Mail one box with 1000 800GB tapes (6400 Tbit)
Takes one day to send (86,400 secs)
Data rate is 70 Gbps.
Data rate is faster than long-distance networks!
But, the message delay is very poor.
Transmission medium
Link Terminology
Full-duplex link
Used for transmission in both directions at once
e.g., use different twisted pairs for each direction
Half-duplex link
Both directions, but not at the same time
e.g., senders take turns on a wireless channel
Simplex link
Only one fixed direction at all times; not common
Guided Transmission
Signals propagate in solid media: copper, fiber
Wires:
Twisted pairs
Coaxial cable
Power lines
Fiber cables
Wires Twisted Pair

Very common; used in LANs and telephone lines
Twists reduce radiated signal (interference)
UTP
STP
Physical Media
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Consists of 4 pairs (8 wires) of

insulated copper wires typically about
1 mm thick
The wires are twisted together in a
helical form
High bandwidth and High attenuation
channel
Flexible and cheap cable
Category rating based on number of
twists, the diameter and the material
used:
CAT 3, CAT 4, CAT 5, CAT5e, CAT 6
and CAT 6a
CAT 5e and CAT 6 are currently the
most common Ethernet cables used.
Wires Coaxial Cable (Co-ax)

Also common. Better shielding and more bandwidth for
longer distances and higher rates than twisted pair.
BNC connector
Category
Impedance
Use
RG-59
75
Cable TV
RG-58
50
Thin Ethernet
RG-11
50
Thick Ethernet
Wires Power Lines

Household electrical wiring is another example of wires
Convenient to use, but horrible for sending data
CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall and D. Wetherall, 2011
Fiber Cables
Common for high rates and long distances
Long distance ISP links, Fiber-to-the-Home
Light carried in very long, thin strand of glass
Light source
(LED, laser)
Light trapped by
total internal reflection
low error rate:

repeaters spaced far apart
immune to electromagnetic noise
Photodetector
Total Internal Reflection
Single and Multimode Fiber (1)

Single-mode
Core so narrow (10um) light
cant even bounce around
Used with lasers for long
distances, e.g., 100km
Multi-mode
Other main type of fiber
Light can bounce (50um core)
Used with LEDs for cheaper,
shorter distance links
Fibers in a cable
Physical Media
Single and Multimode Fibers and

conncetors
Single-mode fiber
Carries light pulses
along single path
Uses Laser Light Source
Multimode fiber
Many pulses of light
generated by LED travel
at different angles
SC simplex
Connectors (most-common)
SC (simplex and duplex singlemode)
FC (simplex single and multimode) LC simplex and duplex
LC (simplex and duplex, single and multimode)
FDDI (duplex, mulitomode)
FC
FDDI
Fiber Attentuation
Fiber has enormous bandwidth (THz) and tiny signal
loss hence high rates over long distances
Fiber Cables vs. Wires

Comparison of the properties of wires and fiber:
Property
Wires
Fiber
Distance
Short (100s of m)
Long (tens of km)
Bandwidth
Moderate
Very High
Cost
Inexpensive
Less cheap
Convenience
Easy to use
Less easy
Security
Easy to tap
Hard to tap
Unguided Transmission
Signals propagate freely through air
Terrestrial (wireless)
radiowaves,
microwaves,
infrared,
lasers
Satellites
Wireless Transmission
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Radio Transmission
Microwave Transmission
Light Transmission
Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber
Wireless
Sender radiates signal over a region
In many directions, unlike a wire, to potentially many

receivers
Nearby signals (same freq.) interfere at a receiver; need
to coordinate use
Wireless
Indoor: 10 50m: BlueTooth, WLAN
Short range Outdoor: 50 200m: WLAN
Mid Range Outdoor: 200m 5 Km: GSM, CDMA,
WLAN Point-to-Point, Wi-Max
Long Range Outdoor: 5 Km 100 Km: Microwave
Point-to-Point
Long Distance Communication: Across Continents:
Satellite Communication
Electromagnetic Spectrum (1)

Different bands have different uses:
Radio: wide-area broadcast; Infrared/Light: line-of-sight
Microwave (300 MHz (0.3 GHz) and 300 GHz): LANs and
3G/4G;
Networking focus
Microwave

To manage interference, spectrum is carefully divided,
and its use regulated and licensed, e.g., sold at auction.
300 MHz
3 GHz
WiFi (ISM bands)

3 GHz
Source: NTIA Office of Spectrum Management, 2003
Part of the US frequency allocations
30 GHz

Fortunately, there are also unlicensed (ISM) bands:
Free for use at low power; devices manage interference
Widely used for networking; WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, etc.
802.11
b/g/n
802.11a/g/n
Propagation methods
Frequency bands
Band
Range
Propagation
Application
VLF
330 KHz
Ground
Long-range radio navigation
LF
30300 KHz
Ground
Radio beacons and

navigational locators
MF
300 KHz3 MHz
Sky
AM radio
HF
330 MHz
Sky
Citizens band (CB),

ship/aircraft communication
VHF
30300 MHz
Sky and
line-of-sight
VHF TV,
FM radio
UHF
300 MHz3 GHz
Line-of-sight
UHF TV, cellular phones,

paging, satellite
SHF
330 GHz
Line-of-sight
Satellite communication
EHF
30300 GHz
Line-of-sight
Long-range radio navigation
Radio Transmission
Radio signals penetrate buildings well and propagate for long
distances with path loss
In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves In the HF band, radio waves bounce off
follow the curvature of the earth
the ionosphere.
Microwave Transmission
Microwaves have much bandwidth and are widely used
indoors (WiFi) and outdoors (3G, satellites, long ditance
telephone systems)
Signal is attenuated/reflected by everyday objects
Strength varies with mobility due multipath fading, etc.
Light Transmission
Line-of-sight light (no fiber) can be used for links
Light is highly directional, has much bandwidth
Use of LEDs/cameras and lasers/photodetectors
Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber

Wireless:
+
+
+
Easy and inexpensive to deploy

Naturally supports mobility
Naturally supports broadcast
Transmissions interfere and must be managed
Signal strengths hence data rates vary greatly
Wires/Fiber:
+ Easy to engineer a fixed data rate over point-to-point links
Can be expensive to deploy, esp. over distances
Doesnt readily support mobility or broadcast
Communication Satellites
Satellites are effective for broadcast distribution

and anywhere/anytime communications
Kinds of Satellites
Geostationary (GEO) Satellites
Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites
Satellites vs. Fiber
Kinds of Satellites
Satellites and their properties vary by altitude:
Geostationary (GEO), Medium-Earth Orbit (MEO),
and Low-Earth Orbit (LEO)
Sats needed for
global coverage
Geostationary Satellites
GEO satellites orbit 35,000 km above a fixed location
VSAT (computers) can communicate with the help of a hub
Different bands (L, S, C, Ku, Ka) in the GHz are in use but may be
crowded or susceptible to rain.
GEO satellite
VSAT
Band
DL
UL
BW
Problems
1.5 GHz
1.6
GHz
15 MHz
Low bandwidth;
crowded
1.9 GHz
2.2
GHz
70 MHz
Low bandwidth;
crowded
4.0 GHz
6.0
GHz
500 MHz
Terrestrial
interference
Ku
11 GHz
14 GHz 500 MHz
Ka
20 GHz
30 GHz
3500
MHz
Rain
Rain, equipment
cost
Low-Earth Orbit Satellites

Systems such as Iridium use many low-latency satellites
for coverage and route communications via them
The Iridium satellites form six

necklaces (11 satellites per
necklace) around the earth.
LEO relaying
(a) Relaying in space. (b) Relaying on the ground.
Satellite vs. Fiber

Satellite:
+ Can rapidly set up anywhere/anytime communications (after
satellites have been launched)
+ Can broadcast to large regions
Limited bandwidth and interference to manage
Fiber:
+ Enormous bandwidth over long distances
Installation can be more expensive/difficult
Theoretical Basis for Data Communication
Communication rates have fundamental limits
Signals
Fourier analysis
Bandwidth-limited signals
Maximum data rate of a channel
Signals
To be transmitted, data must be transformed to
electromagnetic signals.
Analog signals continuous-time signal formed by

continously varying voltage or current levels (period,
frequency, amplitude, phase); can have an infinite number
of values in a range
Digital signals constant voltage or current value for short
time and then changes to a different value; can have only
a limited number of values
Analog Signals
Sine Wave
Peak
amplitude
Frequency and period are inverses of each other T=1/f
Sine wave examples (1)
Sine wave examples (2)
Time and frequency domain of analog

signals
Fourier Analysis
A time-varying signal can be equivalently represented as a
series of frequency components (harmonics):
=
Signal over time
a, b weights of harmonics
Bandwidth
Range of frequency components that can be satisfactorily
transmitted by the channel (medium)
Bandwidth-Limited Signals
Digital signal is a composite signal with an infinite bandwidth
Having less bandwidth (harmonics) degrades the signal
8 harmonics
Lost!
Bandwidth
4 harmonics
Lost!
2 harmonics
Lost!
Bit rate and bit interval
Digital versus analog
Digital signals - Bandwidth Requirements

Bit
Rate
Harmonic
1
Harmonics
1, 3
Harmonics
1, 3, 5
Harmonics
1, 3, 5, 7
1 Kbps
500 Hz
2 KHz
4.5 KHz
8 KHz
10 Kbps
5 KHz
20 KHz
45 KHz
80 KHz
100 Kbps
50 KHz
200 KHz
450 KHz
800 KHz
Analog vs. Digital
Digital transmission needs a low-pass channel
Analog transmission can use a band-pass channel
Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

Nyquists theorem (~1924) relates the data rate to the
bandwidth (B) and number of signal levels (V):
Max. data rate = 2B log2V bits/sec

The maximum symbol rate is 2B
Shannon's theorem (1948) relates the data rate to the
bandwidth (B) and signal strength (S) relative to the noise
(N):
Max. data rate = B log2(1 + S/N) bits/sec

How fast signal
can change
How many levels

can be seen
Baud Rate vs. Data Rate

Symbol (Baud) rate: fs Symbol duration time: Ts=1/fs
Digital systems with binary code: 1 Bd = 1 bit/s
Analog systems - continuous range of values to represent
information: 1 Bd 1 bit/s.
K bits per symbol: fs=R/K
V=2K different symbols in use
R= fs log2V bits/sec
Nyquist: If B-maximum freq. medium can transmit, then signal

can be reconstructed by sampling 2B times The maximum
symbol rate is 2B
fs/2B
=> Max. fs=2B
Max.R=2B log2V bits/sec
Example
A voice-grade link with cut.off frequency 3000Hz;
Baud rate b [Baud/s] and 1bit/Baud => Time to transmit 8 bits:

T=8/b [s] => frequency of the first harmonic f0 = b/8 [Hz].
Voice-grade link => number of the highest harmonic passed
through = 3000/(b/8) or 24,000/b
e.g. 9.6 kbps => f0 = 1200 Hz => harmonics=2
38.4 kbps => f0 = 4800 Hz => harmonics=0
Transmission Impairment
Attenuation
Noise
Delay
Distortion
Signals over Wireless
Attenuation
1. The signal is attenuated (goes for m to km)
2. Frequencies above a cutoff are highly attenuated
Delay
The signal is delayed (propagates at c in wires)
propagation delay
Propagation delay: time for bits to propagate across the wire
P-delay = Length / speed of signals = Length / c = D
seconds
Transmission delay: time to put M-bit message on the wire

T-delay = M (bits) / Rate (bits/sec) = M/R seconds
Latency is the delay to send a message over a link:

Combining the two terms we have:
L = M/R + D
Noise
Noise is added to the signal (later, causes errors)
Shannon Capacity
How many levels we can distinguish depends on
S/N
Or SNR, the Signal-to-Noise Ratio

Note noise is random, hence some errors
SNR given on a log-scale in deciBels:
SNRdB = 10log10(S/N)
S+N
0
1
2
3
Distortion
Signals over Wireless

Signal
strength
1/dist2
Distance
Signal attenuates faster than 1/dist2.

Multiple signals on the same frequency interfere at a receiver
Interference leads to notion of spatial reuse (of same freq.)
Multipath fading at microwave frequencies: Signals bounce
off objects and take multiple paths
Example (1)
1. A signal has four data levels with a pulse duration of 1
ms. We calculate the pulse rate and bit rate as follows:
Pulse Rate = 1/ 10-3= 1000 pulses/s
Bit Rate = PulseRate x log2 L = 1000 x log2 4 = 2000 bps
2. We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR for
this channel is 63; what is the appropriate bit rate and
signal level?
First, we use the Shannon formula to find our upper limit.
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 63) = 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps
Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal
levels.
6 Mbps = 2 1 MHz log2 L L = 8
Example (2)
3. Determine the minimum signal-to-noise ratio (in dB) that
can be tolerated in order to reliably transmit a digital bit
stream at a rate of 1.544 Mbps over a 96 kHz band-limited
channel.
4. You race against the same channel carrying one full 8 GB
DVD. You drive your car at average speed of 60km/h. The
same amount of data is transmitted over the channel. The
last bit sent over the channel arrives to the destination
together with you. What is the length of the wire?
Modulation
Digital modulation
Baseband transmission
Passband transmission
Signal
10110
10110
Digital Modulation
Modulation schemes send bits as signals.
Line coding - Baseband Transmission/Modulation
Shift Keying - Passband Transmission
Baseband Transmission
Line codes send symbols that represent one or more bits
NRZ is the simplest, literal line code (+1V=1, -1V=0)
Other codes tradeoff bandwidth and signal transitions
Four different line codes

Bandwidth Efficiency
Strategies:
use more than two signaling levels - Multilevel Schemes
increase the number of data bits per symbol thereby
increasing the bit rate
2B1Q:
4B3T:
MLT-3:
Clock Recovery
To decode the symbols, signals need sufficient transitions
Otherwise long runs of 0s (or 1s) are confusing, e.g.:
1
0 um, 0? er, 0?
Strategies for clock recovery (1)
Manchester coding, mixes clock signal in every symbol
Differential Manchester coding
Strategies for clock recovery (2)
Code the data to ensure that there are enough transitions

in the signal:
e.g. Coding 1 as a transition and 0 as no transitions:
NRZI (Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted)
4B/5B maps 4 data bits to 5 coded bits with 1s and 0s:

Data
0000
0001
0010
0011
Code
11110
01001
10100
10101
Data
0100
0101
0110
0111
Code
01010
01011
01110
01111
Data
1000
1001
1010
1011
Code
10010
10011
10110
10111
Data
1100
1101
1110
1111
Code
11010
11011
11100
11101
Scrambler XORs tx/rx data with pseudorandom bits
DC component
Strategies:
Bipolar coding: bipolar NRZ, Manchester, AMI

Using 4B/5B to achieve balance (as well as transitions for clock
recovery) or 8B/10B
4B3T
Line coding example

1. We need to send data at a 1-Mbps rate. What is the
minimum required bandwidth, using a combination of 4B/5B
and NRZ-I or Manchester coding?
Solution:
First 4B/5B block coding increases the bit rate to 1.25 Mbps.
The minimum bandwidth using NRZ-I is N/2 or 625 kHz. The
Manchester scheme needs a minimum bandwidth of 1 MHz.
The first choice needs a lower bandwidth, but has a DC
component problem; the second choice needs a higher
bandwidth, but does not have a DC component problem.
Line coding example calculation

Max data rate R=2B log2V [bits/sec]
V=2K different symbols in use => log2V=k
=> max.R=2Bk [bits/sec]
Symbol rate v [Baud/s] =R/k => k=R/v [bit/Baud]
=>max.v=2B => B=v/2
1o 4B/5B: k=1bit/(5/4Baud)=4/5 [bit/Baud]
R=1Mb/s => v=1Mbps/(4/5 bit/Baud)=1,25MBaud/s
NRZ-I: k=1bit/1Baud => v=R
=> B=v/2=1,25x106/2=625kHz
2o Manchester: k=1bit/2Baud=1/2 [bit/Baud]
R=1Mb/s => v=1Mbps/(1/2 bit/Baud)=2MBaud/s
=> B=v/2=2x106/2=1MHz
Problems for individual work

1. We need to send data at a 100 Mbps rate over a cable with a
50MHz bandwidth. Which of the following line coding
techniques we could use: Manchester coding, a combination
of 8B/10B and NRZ, and MLT-3 coding? Explain.
2. Draw line codes for 1010 0000 0000 1011 0000 1011 0000
NRZ
NRZ-L, NRZ-I
AMI, Pseudoternary, HDB3, B8ZS, CMI
Manchester and differential Manchester schemes
2B1Q, MLT-3
If the bit rate is 1Kbps, what are the baud rates for the
above line codes?
Passband Transmission
Modulating the amplitude, frequency/phase of a carrier
signal sends bits in a (non-zero) frequency range.
Carrier is simply a signal oscillating at a desired
frequency:
NRZ signal of bits

Amplitude shift keying
Frequency shift keying
Phase shift keying
ASK
bit rate=baud rate
ASK example (1)

1. Find the minimum bandwidth for an ASK signal transmitting
at 2000 bps. The transmission mode is half-duplex.
Solution
In ASK the baud rate and bit rate are the same. The baud rate is
therefore 2000. An ASK signal requires a minimum bandwidth
equal to its baud rate. Therefore, the minimum bandwidth is
2000 Hz.
ASK example (2)

2. Given a bandwidth of 10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz),
draw the full-duplex ASK diagram of the system. Find the
carriers and the bandwidths in each direction. Assume
there is no gap between the bands in the two directions.
Solution
For full-duplex ASK, the bandwidth for each direction is:
BW = 10000 / 2 = 5000 Hz
The carrier frequencies can be chosen at the middle of each
band: fc (forward) = 1000 + 5000/2 = 3500 Hz
fc (backward) = 11000 5000/2 = 8500 Hz
FSK
FSK examples
1. Find the minimum bandwidth for an FSK signal transmitting at 2000 bps.
Transmission is in half-duplex mode, and the carriers are separated by
3000 Hz.
Solution
For FSK:
BW = baud rate + fc1 - fc0
BW = bit rate + fc1 - fc0 = 2000 + 3000 = 5000 Hz
2. Find the maximum bit rates for an FSK signal if the bandwidth of the
medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference between the two carriers is 2000
Hz. Transmission is in full-duplex mode.
Solution
Because the transmission is full duplex, only 6000 Hz is allocated for each
direction.
BW = baud rate + fc1 - fc0
Baud rate = BW - (fc1 - fc0 ) = 6000 - 2000 = 4000
But because the baud rate is the same as the bit rate, the bit rate is 4000
PSK
4-PSK, 8-PSK
4-PSK:
8-PSK:
PSK example
1. Find the bandwidth for a 4-PSK signal transmitting at
2000 bps. Transmission is in half-duplex mode.
Solution
For PSK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth, but in
4-PSK the bit rate is 2 times the baud rate, so the baud rate
is 4,000 bps. Therefore, the minimum bandwidth is 4000 Hz.
2. Given a bandwidth of 5000 Hz for an 8-PSK signal, what
are the baud rate and bit rate?
Solution
For PSK the baud rate is the same as the bandwidth, which
means the baud rate is 5000. But in 8-PSK the bit rate is 3
times the baud rate, so the bit rate is 15,000 bps.
QPSK; QAM
Constellation diagrams are a shorthand to capture the
amplitude and phase modulations of symbols:
BPSK
2 symbols
1 bit/symbol
QPSK
4 symbols
2 bits/symbol
BPSK/QPSK varies only phase
QAM-16
16 symbols
4 bits/symbol
QAM-64
64 symbols
6 bits/symbol
QAM varies amplitude and phase
Gray-code
Gray-coding assigns bits to symbols so that small symbol
errors cause few bit errors:
B
E
A
D
Passband trasmission: Bit and baud rate

comparison
Modulation
Units
Bits/Baud
Baud rate
Bit Rate
Bit
4-PSK, 4-QAM
Dibit
2N
8-PSK, 8-QAM
Tribit
3N
16-QAM
Quadbit
4N
32-QAM
Pentabit
5N
64-QAM
Hexabit
6N
128-QAM
Septabit
7N
256-QAM
Octabit
8N
ASK, FSK, 2-PSK
Examples
1. A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced
points on a circle. If the bit rate is 4800 bps, what is the
baud rate?
Solution
The constellation indicates 8-PSK with the points 45 degrees
apart. Since 23 = 8, 3 bits are transmitted with each signal
unit. Therefore, the baud rate is
4800 / 3 = 1600 baud
2. Compute the baud rate for a 72,000-bps 64-QAM signal.
Solution
A 64-QAM signal has 6 bits per signal unit since: log2 64 = 6.
Thus, 72000 / 6 = 12,000 baud
Problems for individual work

1. A modem constellation diagram has data points at the
following coordinates: (1, 1), (1, -1), (-1, 1), (-1, -1), (2, 1),
(2, -1), (-2, 1), and (-2, -1). How many bps can a modem
with these parameters achieve at 1200 symbols/second?
What kind of modulations this modem does use?
Multiplexing
Multiplexing schemes share a channel among users.
Frequency Division Multiplexing

Time Division Multiplexing
Code Division Multiple Access
Frequency Division Multiplexing (1)
FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) shares the

channel by placing users on different frequencies
Can be applied when the BW of a link is greater than
the combined BWs of the signals to be transmitted
Overall FDM channel

FDM process
Example (1)
1. Five channels, each with a 100-KHz bandwidth, are to be
FDM multiplexed together. What is the minimum
bandwidth of the link if there is a need for a guard band of
10 KHz between the channels to prevent interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This
means that the required bandwidth is at least:
5 x 100 + 4 x 10 = 540 KHz
Example (2)
2. Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1 Mbps,
use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an appropriate
configuration using FDM
Solution
The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four
channels, each channel having a 250-KHz bandwidth. Each
digital channel of 1 Mbps is modulated such that each 4 bits
are modulated to 1 Hz. One solution is 16-QAM modulation.
Figure 6.8 shows one possible configuration.
OFDM
OFDM (Orthogonal FDM) is an efficient FDM technique
used for 802.11, 4G cellular and other communications
Subcarriers are coordinated to be tightly packed
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Time division multiplexing shares a channel over time:
Instead of sharing a portion of the bandwidth as in
FDM, time is shared
Users take turns on a fixed schedule; this is not packet
switching or STDM (Statistical TDM)
Widely used in telephone / cellular systems
In a TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and

the unit duration is n times shorter
Example (1)
1. Four 1-Kbps connections are TDM multiplexed together. A
unit is 1 bit. Find (1) the duration of 1 bit before
multiplexing, (2) the transmission rate of the link, (3) the
duration of a time slot, and (4) the duration of a frame?
Solution
1. The duration of 1 bit is 1/1 Kbps, or 0.001 s (1 ms).
2. The rate of the link is 4 Kbps.
3. The duration of each time slot 1/4 ms or 250 ms.
4. The duration of a frame 1 ms.
Example (2)
2. A multiplexer combines four 100-Kbps channels using a
time slot of 2 bits. Show the output with four arbitrary
inputs. What is the frame rate? What is the frame
duration? What is the bit rate? What is the bit duration?
Solution
Figure shows the output for four arbitrary inputs.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

CDMA shares the channel by giving users a code
Codes are orthogonal; can be sent at the same time
Widely used as part of 3G networks
Sender Codes
A=
Transmitted
Signal
+1
+1
-1
-1
+2
B=
+1 +1
-1 -1
Receiver Decoding
S x A +2+2
0
SxB
-2 -2
Sum = 4
A sent 1
Sum = -4
B sent 0
-2
C=
+1
+1
-1 -1
S = +A -B
S x C +2
0
0
-2
Sum = 0
C didnt send
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Chip sequences for four stations

Signals the sequences represent
Six examples of transmissions
Recovery of station C's signal.
CDMA multiplexer and demultiplexer
Example (1)
1. Below are shown the binary chip sequences assigned to
four example stations in binary and bipolar notation:
A: (-1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1); B: (-1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1);
C: (-1 -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1); D: (-1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1)
Station A wants to send binary 1, station B binary 0, station C
wants to stay silent and station D wants to send binary 1. Show
the resultant chip sequence in bipolar notation.
Solution
A sends: (-1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1); B sends (+1 -1 +1 -1 -1 -1 +1
+1); C sends (0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0); D sends (-1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1).
The resulting sequence is S=A+B+C+D= (-1 -1 +1 -3 -1 -1 +3
-1).
Example (2)
2. If the CDMA receiver gets the following chips: (-1 +3 -1 -1 -1
+1 -1 -3) which stations of the above four transmitted and
which bits did each one send?
Solution
SA/8=(-1 +3 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1 -3) (-1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1)/8 =
(+1 -3 -1 +1 -1 +1 -1 +3)/8=0
SB/8=(-1 +3 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1 -3) (-1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1)/8 =
(+1 +3 +1 -1 -1 +1 +1 +3)/8=1
SC/8=(-1 +3 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1 -3) (-1 -1 -1 +1 +1 -1 +1 +1)/8 =
(+1 -3 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -3)/8=-1
SD/8=(-1 +3 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1 -3) (-1 +1 -1 -1 -1 -1 +1 -1)/8 =
(+1 +3 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1 +3)/8=1
B and D sent 1 bits, C sent a 0 bit, and A was silent.
The Public Switched Telephone Network
Structure of the telephone system

Politics of telephones
Local loop: modems, ADSL, and FTTH
Trunks and multiplexing
Switching
Structure of the Telephone System

A hierarchical system for carrying voice calls made of:
Local loops, mostly analog twisted pairs to houses
Trunks, digital fiber optic links that carry calls
Switching offices, that move calls among trunks
The Politics of Telephones

In the U.S., there is a distinction for competition between
serving a local area (LECs) and connecting to a local area
(at a POP) to switch calls across areas (IXCs)
Customers of a LEC can dial via any IXC they choose
Local loop (1): modems

Telephone modems send digital data over an 3.3 KHz
analog voice channel interface to the POTS
Rates <56 kbps; early way to connect to the Internet
The V.32 constellation and bandwidth
The V.32bis constellation and bandwidth
Local loop (2): Digital Subscriber Lines

DSL broadband sends data over the local loop to the local
office using frequencies that are not used for POTS
Telephone/computers
attach to the same old
phone line
Rates vary with line
ADSL2 up to 12 Mbps
OFDM is used up to
1.1 MHz for ADSL2
Most bandwidth down
QAM modulation
Local loop (3): Digital Subscriber Lines
Bandwidth versus distance over Category 3 UTP for DSL.
CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall , 2011
Local loop (4): Fiber To The Home

FTTH broadband relies on deployment of fiber optic cables
to provide high data rates to customers
One wavelength can be shared among many houses
Fiber is passive (no amplifiers, etc.)
Trunks and Multiplexing (1)

Digitizing Voice Signals
PCM (Pulse Code Modulation):
Analog signals are digitized in the end office by a
device called a codec (coder-decoder)
8000 samples per second (125 sec/sample)
Nyquist sufficient for 4-kHz telephone channel
bandwidth
Each sample of the amplitude quantized to an 8-bit
number
The standard uncompressed data rate for a voice-grade
telephone call is thus 8 bits every 125 sec, or 64 kbps.

Calls are carried digitally on PSTN trunks using TDM
A call is an 8-bit PCM sample each 125 s (64 kbps)
Traditional T1 carrier has 24 call channels each 125 s
(1.544 Mbps) with symbols based on AMI
Multiplexing T1 streams into higher carriers.

T Line
Rate
(Mbps)
Voice
Channels
E Line
Rate
(Mbps)
Voice
Channels
T-1
1.544
24
E-1
2.048
30
T-2
6.312
96
E-2
8.448
120
T-3
44.736
672
E-3
34.368
480
T-4
274.176
4032
E-4
139.264
1920
CN5E by Tanenbaum & Wetherall, Pearson Education-Prentice Hall , 2011

SONET (Synchronous Optical NETwork) is the worldwide
standard for carrying digital signals on optical trunks
Keeps 125 s frame; base frame is 810 bytes (52Mbps)
Payload floats within framing for flexibility

Hierarchy at 3:1 per level is used for higher rates
Each level also adds a small amount of framing
Rates from 50 Mbps (STS-1) to 40 Gbps (STS-768)
SONET/SDH rate hierarchy

WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing), another name for
FDM, is used to carry many signals on one fiber:
Switching (1)
PSTN uses circuit switching; Internet uses packet switching
PSTN:
Internet:
Switching (2)
Circuit switching requires
call setup (connection)
before data flows smoothly
Also teardown at end
(not shown)
Packet switching treats
messages independently
No setup, but variable
queuing delay at routers
Circuits
Packets
Switching (3)
Comparison of circuit- and packet-switched networks
Problems
1. A simple telephone system consists of two end offices and a
single toll office to which each end office is connected by a
1-MHz full-duplex trunk. The average telephone is used to
make four calls per 8-hour workday. The mean call duration
is 6 min. Ten percent of the calls are long distance (i.e., pass
through the toll office). What is the maximum number of
telephones an end office can support? (Assume 4 kHz per
circuit.) Explain why a telephone company may decide to
support a lesser number of telephones than this maximum
number at the end office.
Problems
Mobile Telephone System
Generations of mobile telephone systems

Cellular mobile telephone systems
GSM, a 2G system
UMTS, a 3G system
Generations of mobile telephone systems

1G, analog voice
AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) is example, deployed
from 1980s. Modulation based on FM (as in radio).
2G, analog voice and digital data

GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) is example,
deployed from 1990s. Modulation based on QPSK.
3G, digital voice and data

UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications System) is
example, deployed from 2000s. Modulation based on CDMA
4G, digital data including voice

LTE (Long Term Evolution) is example, deployed from 2010s.
Modulation based on OFDM
Cellular mobile phone systems

All based on notion of spatial regions called cells
Each mobile uses a frequency in a cell; moves cause handoff
Frequencies are reused across non-adjacent cells
To support more mobiles, smaller cells can be used
Cellular reuse pattern

Smaller cells for dense mobiles
GSM Global System for Mobile

Communications (1)
Mobile is divided into handset and SIM card (Subscriber

Identity Module) with credentials
Mobiles tell their HLR (Home Location Register) their current
whereabouts for incoming calls
Cells keep track of visiting mobiles (in the Visitor LR)
GSM Global System for Mobile

Communications (2)
Air interface is based on FDM channels of 200 KHz
divided in an eight-slot TDM frame every 4.615 ms
Mobile is assigned up- and down-stream slots to use
Each slot is 148 bits long, gives rate of 27.4 kbps
UMTS Universal Mobile

Telecommunications System (1)
Architecture is an evolution of GSM; terminology differs
Packets goes to/from the Internet via SGSN/GGSN
Internet
UMTS Universal Mobile

Telecommunications System (2)
Air interface based on CDMA over 5 MHz channels
Rates over users <14.4 Mbps (HSPDA) per 5 MHz
CDMA allows frequency reuse over all cells
CDMA permits soft handoff (connected to both cells)
Soft
handoff
Cable Television
Internet over cable

Spectrum allocation
Cable modems
ADSL vs. cable
Internet over Cable

Internet over cable reuses the cable television plant
Data is sent on the shared cable tree from the headend, not on a dedicated line per subscriber (DSL)
ISP
(Internet)
Spectrum Allocation
Upstream and downstream data are allocated to
frequency channels not used for TV channels:
Cable Modems
Cable modems at customer premises implement the
physical layer of the DOCSIS standard
QPSK/QAM is used in timeslots on frequencies that
are assigned for upstream/downstream data
Cable vs. ADSL

Cable:
+ Uses coaxial cable to
customers (good bandwidth)
Data is broadcast to all
customers (less secure)
Bandwidth is shared over
customers so may vary
ADSL:
+ Bandwidth is dedicated for
each customer
+ Point-to-point link does not
broadcast data
Uses twisted pair to
customers (lower bandwidth)
End
Chapter 2

Chapter2 PhysicalLayer

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The Physical Layer

Simple signal propagation

Modulation schemes and multiplexing

The Physical Layer

The Physical Layer

Wires Twisted Pair

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Consists of 4 pairs (8 wires) of

Wires Coaxial Cable (Co-ax)

Wires Power Lines

low error rate:

Total Internal Reflection

Single and Multimode Fiber (1)

Single and Multimode Fibers and

Fiber Cables vs. Wires

Long (tens of km)

In many directions, unlike a wire, to potentially many

Electromagnetic Spectrum (1)

Electromagnetic Spectrum (2)

WiFi (ISM bands)

Source: NTIA Office of Spectrum Management, 2003

Part of the US frequency allocations

Electromagnetic Spectrum (3)

Long-range radio navigation

Radio beacons and

300 KHz3 MHz

Citizens band (CB),

300 MHz3 GHz

UHF TV, cellular phones,

Long-range radio navigation

Wireless vs. Wires/Fiber

Easy and inexpensive to deploy

Satellites are effective for broadcast distribution

14 GHz 500 MHz

Low-Earth Orbit Satellites

The Iridium satellites form six

(a) Relaying in space. (b) Relaying on the ground.

Satellite vs. Fiber

Theoretical Basis for Data Communication

Communication rates have fundamental limits

Analog signals continuous-time signal formed by

Frequency and period are inverses of each other T=1/f

Sine wave examples (1)

Sine wave examples (2)

Time and frequency domain of analog

Bit rate and bit interval

Digital versus analog

Digital signals - Bandwidth Requirements

Analog vs. Digital

Digital transmission needs a low-pass channel

Analog transmission can use a band-pass channel

Maximum Data Rate of a Channel

Max. data rate = 2B log2V bits/sec

Max. data rate = B log2(1 + S/N) bits/sec

How many levels

Baud Rate vs. Data Rate

Nyquist: If B-maximum freq. medium can transmit, then signal

Max.R=2B log2V bits/sec

Baud rate b [Baud/s] and 1bit/Baud => Time to transmit 8 bits:

Signals over Wireless

Transmission delay: time to put M-bit message on the wire

Latency is the delay to send a message over a link:

Or SNR, the Signal-to-Noise Ratio