Pressure Vessels

Pressure Vessel Design
2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Towler & SinnottChemical Engineering Design only. Do not copy
Chemical Engineering Design
A pressure vessel is any vessel

that falls under the definition laid
down in the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Section
VIII, Rules for the Construction
of Pressure Vessels (ASME
BPV Code Sec. VIII)
The definition applies to most

process reactors, distillation
columns, separators (flashes
and decanters), pressurized
storage vessels and heat
exchangers
2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Towler & Sinnott Chemical Engineering Design only. Do not copy
Source: UOP
Isnt This Something to Leave to the

Mechanical Engineers?
Chemical engineers are usually not properly trained or qualified to carry

out detailed mechanical design of vessels. Most mechanical designs are
completed by specialists in later phases of design
But
The process design engineer needs to understand pressure vessel

design in order to generate good cost estimates (e.g. in Aspen ICARUS)
Costs can vary discontinuously with vessel design

A 10C change in temperature could double the vessel cost if it causes a change in code!
Adding a component could cause a change in metallurgy that would mean moving to a more
expensive code design
The process engineer will end up specifying the main constraints on the
vessel design: if you dont know how to do this properly, you cant really
design anything

Pressure Vessel Design Codes
Vessel Geometry & Construction
Strength of Materials
Vessel Specifications
Materials of Construction
Pressure Vessel Design Rules
Fabrication, Inspection and Testing
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

ASME BPV Code is the legally required standard for
pressure vessel design, fabrication, inspection and
testing in North America
Section
I
Rules for construction of power boilers
Allowable stresses are
II
Materials
given in Sec. II
III Nuclear power plant components
IV Rules for construction of heating boilers
V
Nondestructive examination
VI Recommended rules for the care and operation of heating boilers
VII Recommended guidelines for the care of power boilers
VIII Rules for the construction of pressure vessels
Most chemical plant vessels
Division 1
fall under Sec. VIII D.1 or D.2
Division 2
Alternative rules
Division 3
Alternative rules for the construction of high pressure vessels
IX Welding and brazing qualifications
Often used for bio-reactors
X
Fiber-reinforced plastic vessels
XI Rules for in service inspection of nuclear power plant components
XII Rules for construction and continued service of transport tanks
Advantages of Designing to Code

The Code is a consensus best practice
It is usually required by law
Local requirements may vary (particularly overseas), but ASME
code is usually recognized as acceptable
Always check for local regulations that may require stricter
standards
Code rules are often applied even for vessels that dont
require construction to code
Savings of not following code rules are negligible as vessel
shops are set up to do everything to code
ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII Divisions

Division 1
Division 2
Rigorous analysis of local thermal

and fatigue stresses not required
Safety factor of 3.5 against tensile

failure and 1.25 for 100,000 hour
creep rupture
Requires more analysis than Div.1,

and more inspection, but allows
thinner walled vessels
Safety factor of 3.0 against tensile

failure
Limited to design temperatures less

than 900F (outside creep range)
More economical for high pressure

vessels, but fewer fabricators
available
Limited to design pressures below

3000 psi (but usually costs more
than Div.2 above about 1500 psi)
Either Division of the Code is acceptable, but provisions

cannot be mixed and matched
Vessels Specifically Excluded

by ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII Div 1
Vessels within the scope of other sections of the BPV code. For example, power boilers
(Sec. I), fiber-reinforced plastic vessels (Sec. X) and transport tanks (Sec. XIII).
Fired process tubular heaters.
Pressure containers that are integral parts of rotating or reciprocating devices such as
pumps, compressors, turbines or engines.
Piping systems (which are covered by ASME B31.3 see Chapter 5).
Piping components and accessories such as valves, strainers, in-line mixers and spargers.
Vessels containing water at less than 300 psi (2 MPa) and less than 210F (99C).
Hot water storage tanks heated by steam with heat rate less than 0.2 MMBTU/hr (58.6 kW),
water temperature less than 210F (99C) and volume less than 120 gal (450 liters).
Vessels having internal pressure less than 15 psi (100 kPa) or greater than 3000 psi (20
MPa).
Vessels of internal diameter or height less than 6 inches (152 mm).
Pressure vessels for human occupancy.
ASME Code Stamp Name Plate
Can only be used if vessel is designed, inspected and tested under the
supervision of a Certified Individual employed by the manufacturer
The code stamp must be clearly visible on the vessel

Other Related Codes

Storage tanks are usually not designed to BPV Code
API Standard 620, Large low pressure storage tanks, Pressure 0.5 to
15 psig
API Standard 650, Welded storage tanks, Pressures up to 0.5 psig
Fittings are covered by other ASME codes
ASME B16.5, Pipe flanges and flanged fittings

ASME B16.9, Factory-made wrought buttwelding fittings
ASME B16.11 Forged fittings, socket welding and threaded
ASME B16.47, Large diameter steel flanges NPS26 Through NPS60
Piping is covered by a different ASME code

ASME B16.3, Process piping
Heat exchangers have additional codes set by TEMA

Use of Design Codes & Standards

The latest version of the design code should always be
consulted as regulations change
Example: new version of ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII Div. 2 will
allow for thinner walls on high pressure vessels
All the information given in this presentation is from the

2004 edition

Pressure Vessel Shape

What shape of pressure vessel uses the least amount of
metal to contain a given volume, pressure?
A sphere!
Why is this shape not more widely used?
Usually need to have an extended section of constant crosssection to provide support for vessel internals, trays, distributors,
etc.
It is much easier to obtain and maintain uniform flow in a
cylindrical bed of catalyst or packing than it is in a non-uniform
cross-section
A cylinder takes up a lot less plot space for the same volume
A sphere is more expensive to fabricate
Pressure Vessel Shape

Most pressure vessels are at least 2:1 cylinders: 3:1 or 4:1
are most common:
2:1
3:1
4:1
(To scale)
Distillation columns are obviously an exception: diameter

is set by flooding correlations and height by number of
trays
Vessel Size Restrictions

Diameter gets very expensive if > 13.5 ft. Why?
Height (length) gets very expensive if > 180 ft. Why?

Roughly 50 cranes can lift > 180 ft
Only 14 can lift > 240 ft
Vessels that cant be transported have to be fabricated on site
Vessel Orientation
Usually vertical
Easier to distribute fluids across a smaller cross section
Smaller plot space
Reasons for using horizontal vessels

To promote phase separation
Increased cross section = lower vertical velocity = less entrainment
Decanters, settling tanks, separators, flash vessels
To allow internals to be pulled for cleaning

Heat exchangers
Head (Closure) Designs
Hemispherical
Good for high pressures

Higher internal volume
Most expensive to form & join to shell
Half the thickness of the shell
Ellipsoidal
Cheaper than hemispherical and less
internal volume
Depth is half diameter
Same thickness as shell
Most common type > 15 bar
Torispherical
Part torus, part sphere

Similar to elliptical, but cheaper to fabricate
Cheapest for pressures less than 15 bar
Tangent and Weld Lines

Tangent line is where
curvature begins
Weld line is where
weld is located
Usually they are not
the same, as the
head is fabricated to
allow a weld away
from the geometrical
joint
Welded Joints
Butt weld
Double welded
butt weld
Some weld types are not

permitted by ASME BPV Code
Many other possible variations,

including use of backing strips
and joint reinforcement
Sec. VIII Div. 1 Part UW has

details of permissible joints,
corners, etc.
Welds are usually ground

smooth and inspected
Single fillet
lap weld
Double fillet
lap weld
Double fillet
corner joint
Type of inspection depends on

Code Division
Gasketed Joints
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Full face gasket

Gasket within bolt circle
Spigot and socket
O-ring
Used when vessel must be opened

frequently for cleaning, inspection, etc.
Also used for instrument connections
Not used at high temperatures or
pressures (gaskets fail)
Higher fugitive emissions than welded
joints
Nozzles
Vessel needs nozzles for
Feeds, Products
Hot &/or cold utilities
Manways, bursting disks, relief valves
Instruments
Pressure, Level, Thermowells

Sample points
More nozzles = more cost
Nozzles are usually on side of vessel, away

from weld lines, usually perpendicular to
shell
Nozzles may or may not be flanged (as

shown) depending on joint type
The number & location of nozzles are

usually specified by the process engineer
Nozzle Reinforcement
Shell is weakened around nozzles, and must also support eccentric

loads from pipes
Usually weld reinforcing pads to thicken the shell near the nozzle. Area
of reinforcement = or > area of nozzle: see Code requirements
Swaged Vessels
Vessel does not have to be
constant diameter
It is sometimes cheaper to make a
vessel with several sections of
different diameter
Smaller diameters are usually at
the top, for structural reasons
ASME BPV Code gives rules for
tapered sections
Vessel Supports
Supports must allow for

thermal expansion in
operation
Smaller vessels are usually

supported on beams a
support ring or brackets
are welded to the vessel
Horizontal vessels often

rest on saddles
Tall vertical vessels are

often supported using a
skirt rather than legs. Can
you think why?
Vessel Supports
Note that if the vessel rests on a
beam then the part of the vessel
below the support ring is hanging
and the wall is in tension from the
weight of material in the vessel,
the dead weight of the vessel itself
and the internal pressure
The part of the vessel above the
support ring is supported and the
wall is in compression from the
dead weight (but probably in
tension from internal pressure)
Jacketed Vessels
Heating or cooling jackets are
often used for smaller vessels
such as stirred tank reactors
If the jacket can have higher
pressure than the vessel then
the vessel walls must be
designed for compressive
stresses
Internal stiffening rings are often
used for vessels subject to
external pressure
For small vessels the walls are just
made thicker
Vessel Internals
Most vessels have at least
some internals
Distillation trays
Packing supports
Distribution grids
Heating or cooling coils
These may require support

rings welded to the inside of
the vessel
Source: UOP
The internals & support rings

need to be considered when
calculating vessel weights for
stress analysis

Stress and Strain

L0
F
=F/A
= (L L0)/L0
Cross-sectional area A
Stress = force divided by area over which it is applied
Area = original cross section in a tensile test

Stress can be applied directly or can result from an applied strain
Examples: dead weight, internal or external pressure, etc.
Strain = distortion per unit length
Strain = elongation divided by original length in tensile test

Strain can be applied directly or can result from an applied stress
Example: thermal movement relative to fixed supports
Typical Stress-Strain Curve

for a Mild Steel
Creep
Low Temp
Stress
Strain
Time
Stress or Strain
Stress or Strain
High Temp
Fracture
Stress
Strain
Time
At high temperatures, strain can continue to increase

over time under constant load or displacement
Creep strain = increase in strain at constant load
Creep relaxation = reduction in stress at constant displacement
Accumulated creep strain can lead to failure: creep

rupture
Principle Stresses & Maximum Shear

Stress
y
xy
For a two-dimensional system the

principal stresses at any point are:
1, 2 = (x+ y) [(y - x)2 + 4xy2]
xy
y
Normal stresses x, y
Shear stress xy
The maximum shear stress is half

the algebraic difference between
the principal stresses:
Maximum shear stress = (1 - 2)
For design purposes, often just use 1 - 2
Compressive stresses are taken

as negative, tensile as positive
Failure of Materials
Failure of materials under combined tensile and shear stresses is not simple to
predict. Several theories have been proposed:
Maximum Principal Stress Theory
Component fails when one of the principal stresses exceeds the value that causes
failure in simple tension
Maximum Shear Stress Theory
Component fails when maximum shear stress exceeds the shear stress that causes
Maximum Strain Energy Theory
Component fails when strain energy per unit volume exceeds the value that causes
BPV Code gives values for maximum allowable stress for different materials as a
function of temperature, incorporating a safety factor relative to the stress that
causes failure (ASME BPV Code Sec. II)
Failure in compression is by buckling, which is much harder to predict than
tensile failure. The procedure in the Code is iterative. This should definitely be
left to a specialist
Loads Causing Stresses on Pressure

Vessel Walls
Internal or external pressure
Bending moments due to supports
Dead weight of vessel
Weight of contents under normal

or upset conditions
Thermal expansion, differential

thermal expansion
Weight of contents during

hydraulic testing
Cyclic loads due to pressure or

temperature changes
Wind & snow loads
Weight of internals
Seismic loads
Weight of attached equipment

(piping, decks, ladders, etc)
Residual stresses from

manufacture
Stresses at geometric
discontinuities
Loads due to friction (solids flow)
All these must be combined to determine principal stresses

Example: Wind Load

Wind exerts a pressure on one side
of the vessel
Wind
Resulting force acts like a uniform

beam load and exerts a bending
moment on vessel
Bending
moment
Windward wall is placed in tension,

leeward in compression
Vortex shedding can cause vibration
Hence spirals on chimneys
Usually not needed for columns due to
ladders, pipes, decks, etc.
Thin Cylinder Subject to Internal

Pressure
Inside diameter, D
Forces due to internal pressure are balanced by

shear stresses in wall
Horizontal section:
Height, h
Wall thickness, t
D2
P
L D t
4
PD
L
4t
L
H
Vertical section:
Ph D H 2h t
PD
H
2t
Longitudinal stress, L
Hoop stress, H
Similar equations can be derived for other

geometries such as heads (see Ch 13)

Vessel Specifications Set By the

Process Engineer
The process engineer will usually specify the following
parameters based on process requirements:
Vessel size and shape (volume, L and D)
Vessel orientation and elevation
Maximum and minimum design pressure
Maximum and minimum design temperature
Number of nozzles needed (& location)
Vessel internals
And often also:
Material of construction
Corrosion allowance
There is often a lot of dialogue with the mechanical

engineer to set the final specifications
Design Pressure
Normal operating pressure
The pressure at which you expect the process to usually be operated
Maximum operating pressure

The highest pressure expected including upset conditions such as startup,
shutdown, emergency shutdown
Design pressure
Maximum operating pressure plus a safety margin
Margin is typically 10% of maximum operating pressure or 25 psi, whichever is
greater
Usually specify pressure at top of vessel, where relief valve is located
The BPV Code Sec. VIII Div. 1 doesnt say much on how to
set the design pressure
..a pressure vessel shall be designed for at least the most severe condition of
coincident pressure and temperature expected in normal operation.
Design for Vacuum

The minimum internal pressure a vessel can experience is
full vacuum (-14.7 psig)
Vacuum can be caused by:
Intentional process operation under vacuum (including start-up and
shutdown)
Cooling down a vessel that contains a condensable vapor
Pumping out or draining contents without allowing enough vapor to
enter
Operator error
Vacuum puts vessel walls into compressive stress

What happens if vessel is not designed for vacuum
conditions?
Vessel Subjected to Excess Vacuum
Normal practice is to design for vacuum if it can be expected

to occur
Design Temperatures
Maximum:
Highest mean metal temperature expected in operation, including
transient conditions, plus a margin
Margin is typically plus 50F
Minimum
Lowest mean metal temperature expected in operation, including
transient conditions, upsets, auto-refrigeration, climatic conditions,
anything else that could cause cooling, minus a margin
Margin is typically -25F
MDMT: minimum design metal temperature is important as metals
can become brittle at low temperatures
Designer should allow for possible failure of upstream

equipment (e.g., loss of coolant on upstream cooler)
Design Temperature Considerations

Due to creep, maximum allowable stress drops off
rapidly at higher temperatures
Forces designer to use more expensive alloys
BPV Code Sec. VIII Div.2 cannot be applied for design

temperatures > 900F (no creep safety factor in Div.2)
The Code allows design of vessels with different
temperature zones
Very useful for high temperature vessels
Not usually applied to medium temperature vessels such as heat
exchangers, distillation columns
Design Temperature & Pressure

Exercise 1
100 psig
180 F
What is the design

pressure?
120 + 25 = 145 psig
What is the design
temperature?
340 + 50 = 390F
120 psig
340 F
Design Temperature & Pressure

Exercise 2
Oil
400 psig
120 F
Steam
40 barg
482 F
What is the shell-side

design pressure?
588 + 58 = 646 psig
What is the tube-side
design temperature?
390 psig
450 F
482 + 50 = 532F

Materials Selection Criteria

Safety
Material must have sufficient strength at design conditions

Material must be able to withstand variation (or cycling) in
process conditions
Material must have sufficient corrosion resistance to survive in
service between inspection intervals
Ease of fabrication
Availability in standard sizes (plates, sections, tubes)
Cost
Includes initial cost and cost of periodic replacement
Commonly Used Materials
Steels
Carbon steel, Killed carbon steel cheap, widely available

Low chrome alloys (<9% Cr) better corrosion resistance than CS, KCS
Stainless steels:
304 cheapest austenitic stainless steel
316 better corrosion resistance than 304, more expensive
410
Nickel Alloys
Inconel, Incolloy high temperature oxidizing environments
Monel, Hastelloy expensive, but high corrosion resistance, used for
strong acids
Other metals such as aluminum and titanium are used for special
applications. Fiber reinforced plastics are used for some low
temperature & pressure applications. See Ch 7 for more details
Relative Cost of Metals
The maximum allowable stress values are at 40C (100F) and are taken from
ASME BPV Code Sec. II Part D. The code should be consulted for values at
other temperatures. Several other grades exist for most of the materials listed.
Finished vessel relative costs are not the same as materials relative costs as
vessel cost also includes manufacturing costs, labor and fabricators profit
Corrosion Allowance
Wall thicknesses calculated using BPV Code equations
are for the fully corroded state
Usually add a corrosion allowance of 1/16 to 3/16 (1.5
to 5 mm)
Smaller corrosion allowances are used for heat transfer
equipment, where wall thickness can affect heat transfer

Determining Wall Thickness

Under ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1, minimum wall
thickness is 1/16 (1.5mm) with no corrosion allowance
Most pressure vessels require much thicker walls to
withstand governing load
High pressure vessels: internal pressure usually governs
Thickness required to resist vacuum usually governs for lower
pressure vessels
For vessels designed for low pressure, no vacuum, then analysis
of principal stresses may be needed
Usual procedure is to design for internal pressure (or vacuum),
round up to nearest available standard size and then check for
other loads
Design for Internal Pressure

ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1 specifies using the larger
of the shell thicknesses calculated
For hoop stress
t
or for longitudinal stress
Pi Di
2SE 1.2 Pi
Pi Di
t
4 SE 0.8Pi
S is the maximum allowable stress
E is the welded joint efficiency
Values of S are tabulated in ASME BPV Code Sec.II for

different materials as function of temperature
Some Maximum Allowable Stresses

Under ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1, Taken From Sec. II Part D
Welded Joint Categories

ASME BPV Code has four categories of welds:
A. Longitudinal or spiral welds in the main shell, necks or nozzles, or
circumferential welds connecting hemispherical heads to the main
shell, necks or nozzles.
B. Circumferential welds in the main shell, necks or nozzles or
connecting a formed head other than hemispherical.
C. Welds connecting flanges, tubesheets or flat heads to the main
shell, a formed head, neck or nozzle.
D. Welds connecting communicating chambers or nozzles to the main
shell, to heads or to necks.
Welded Joint Efficiencies Allowed Under

ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1
Closures Subject to Internal Pressure

Hemispherical heads
Pi Di
t
4 SE 0.4 Pi
Ellipsoidal heads
Pi Di
t
2 SE 0.2 Pi
Torispherical heads
t
0.885 Pi Rc
SE 0.1Pi
Rc is the crown radius: see Ch 13
Example
What is the wall thickness required for a 10ft diameter 304
stainless steel vessel with design pressure 500 psi and
design temperature 700F?
From the table, S = 11700 psi
Assume double-welded butt joint with spot radiography, E = 0.85
For hoop stress

t
For longitudinal stress
Pi Di
500 10 12
3.11 inches
2 SE 1.2 Pi 2 11700 0.85 1.2 500
Pi Di
500 10 12
1.49 inches
4 SE 0.8 Pi 4 11700 0.85 0.8 500
So hoop stress governs, choose t = 3.25 or 3.5 inches,

depending on whats readily available as plate stock
Software for Pressure Vessel Design

Rules for external pressure, combined loads are more
complex
Design methods and maximum allowable stresses are
coded into software used by specialist designers, such as:
COMPRESS (Codeware Inc.) has free demo version
http://www.codeware.com/support/tutorials/compress_video_tutorial.html
Pressure Vessel Suite (Computer Engineering Inc.)
PVElite and CodeCalc (COADE Inc.)
Simple ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII D.1 methods are

available in Aspen ICARUS
Good enough for an initial cost estimate if the process engineer puts in realistic
vessel specifications
Useful for checking to see if changes to specifications give cost discontinuities
Not good enough for detailed vessel design
Example
What is the cost of a 10ft diameter, 100ft long 304 stainless
steel vessel with design pressure 500 psi and design
temperature 700F?
Example
In Aspen ICARUS, if we just enter the
dimensions and material:
Example
Total cost $575,500
Example: With More Complete Specifications
Example: With More Complete Specifications
Total cost is now

$1,814,400
Example: ICARUS Results

ICARUS finds a wall thickness of 3.308, based on 3.183 for
hoop stress and 0.125 corrosion allowance
Vacuum design thickness is 1.05, so internal pressure is
governing
Not clear why the ICARUS hoop stress calculation comes
out different, but possibly due to considering combined loads
under wind or seismic conditions
Note that proper specification of vessel design changed cost
by factor 3.15
Results are good enough for preliminary costing, but not for
mechanical design

Vessel Manufacture
Shell is usually made by rolling plate and then welding
along a seam:
Difficult to form small diameters or thick shells by this method
Long vessels are usually made in 8 sections and butt welded
Thicker vessels are made by more expensive drum

forging direct from ingots
Closures are usually forged
Hence restricted to increments of 6 in diameter
Nozzles, support rings etc. are welded on to shell and

heads
Post Weld Heat Treating (PWHT)

Forming and joining (welding) can leave residual
stresses in the metal
Post-weld heat treatment is used to relax these stresses
Guidelines for PWHT are given in the ASME BPV Code
Sec. VIII D.1 Part UW-40
PWHT requirements depend on material and thickness
at weld:
- Over 38mm for carbon steel
- Over 16mm for low alloy

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Pressure Vessel Design

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

Pressure Vessel Design

A pressure vessel is any vessel

The definition applies to most

2012 G.P. Towler / UOP. For educational use in conjunction with

Chemical Engineering Design

Isnt This Something to Leave to the

Chemical engineers are usually not properly trained or qualified to carry

The process design engineer needs to understand pressure vessel

Costs can vary discontinuously with vessel design

Pressure Vessel Design

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code

Chemical Engineering Design

Advantages of Designing to Code

Chemical Engineering Design

ASME BPV Code Sec. VIII Divisions

Rigorous analysis of local thermal

Safety factor of 3.5 against tensile

Requires more analysis than Div.1,

Safety factor of 3.0 against tensile

Limited to design temperatures less

More economical for high pressure

Limited to design pressures below

Either Division of the Code is acceptable, but provisions

Vessels Specifically Excluded

Fired process tubular heaters.

Vessels of internal diameter or height less than 6 inches (152 mm).