BASICS OF CELLULAR

STUDY

Limits on Cellular
Growth
Cells must
have enough
cytoplasm to
function!
Cant have too
much!
Some
structural
leeway in
size
Ability to
compensate
isnt infinite

A Single Cell!
http://en.wikivisual.com/images/3/35/Raw_egg.jpg

THE FIRST KEY

DEFINITION
CELL: A mass of protoplasm
surrounded by a membrane
and containing a nucleus and
organelles
The fundamental unit of life

CELLS DO NOT EXIST AS

INDEPENDENT ENTITIES
(No, not even in bloodas well see later!)

THE SECOND KEY

DEFINITION
TISSUE: An aggregation of cells
and intercellular materials
specialized for specific functions
Cells are always part of a tissue
Tissues function determines what
cells are present
Cells make tissue function possible
Structure of cells often predictable
based on tissue function & vice
versa

FOUR
BASIC
TISSUES
EPITHELIUM
CONNECTIVE
TISSUE
MUSCLE
NERVOUS
TISSUE
Organs made up
of these
At least 2 basic
tissues in any
organ

THE THIRD KEY

DEFINITION
ORGANS:
Aggregations of
cells, tissues, and
intercellular
materials
specialized for
specific functions
Tissues are not
autonomous
Always integrated
with other tissues
to form organs

Separation of
tasks and of cells
& tissues is a
hallmark of
organs

Differentiatio
n

Process by which cells come to have

different characteristics & capabilities
Differentiated cells produce different
proteins than their progenitors
Not all capabilities expressed

Not limited in time

Continues throughout life, e.g., wound
healing & hemopoiesis

Usually a precursor or stem cell type

is involved
Reserve stem cells often present in
tissues/organs

Differentiation of cells & cell lines

determines organ function & physiology
Teased nerve fibers, OsO4 stain

SIZE RANGE IN ANIMAL

CELLS
Smallest: 3-4 m
Some cells of
blood, e.g.
quiescent
lymphocytes

Largest: 100150 m
Some neurons
Monocytes
Skeletal muscle

SMALL CELLS HAVE

LIMITATIONS

Typically very little cytoplasm

Limits functions
May have inactive inclusions
Nuclear material condensed
May be transformed to an active state

Lymphocyte in a smear, Wrights Stain, 1000x

Differentiation:
How We Get From.

Here

to

Here

Differentiatio
n

Process by which cells come to have

different characteristics & capabilities
Differentiated cells produce different
proteins than their progenitors
Not all capabilities expressed

Not limited in time

Continues throughout life, e.g., wound
healing & hemopoiesis

Usually a precursor or stem cell type

is involved
Reserve stem cells often present in
tissues/organs

Differentiation of cells & cell lines

determines organ function & physiology
Teased nerve fibers, OsO4 stain

CELL DEATH
Many cells are preprogrammed to die
Major mechanism of
morphogenesis
Shapes and sculpts limbs,
etc.
Timing is exact and
preprogrammed

Many embryonic
structures only temporary
Removes the scaffold
from the building

Examples:
Formation of paws
Wound healing

Stem
Cells
A general term
A population of
reserve cells
Quiescent
Can be
stimulated
Undergo
differentiation
One stem may
produce several
cell lines

 Defines
cells limits
Controls
passage of
materials
between
interior &
exterior
Site of
receptors,
markers,
etc.
Can be
inferred but
not directly
seen with
LM
Easily
visible with
electron
microscopy

THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE

Two adjacent P.M.s (arrows) define the limits of cells A & B. The s
between is in neither cell: its the intercellular compartment.

CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF THE

P.M.

A fluid mosaic model: a lipid bilayer with islands of

protein to control movement; surface markers of protein,
glycolipids & glycoproteins for recognition & signalling

Image from Histology by Gartner &

PLASMA MEMBRANE

MICROVIL
LI
In LM seen as
brush border
Not individually
resolvable
Uniform length
& height
Intestine,
kidney, some
other sites
Places where
absorption is
vital

The refractile fringe of microvilli as seen in

microscope is referred to as a brush borde
example is from the intestine

MICROVILLI

Filled with cytoplasm, surrounded with PM

May contain actin filaments
May be arranged for maximum # per unit area
Fairly small structures

PM ADAPTATION FOR
ABSORPTION/SECRETION
BASAL FOLDS
Reverse of
microvilli
Basal end of
cell, not apex
Infolds of PM
containing
cytoplasm

Often contain
mitochondria
Associated
with active
transport
Slower
transfer rate
Transporting
finished
goods

P.M. ADAPTATIONS FOR

MOVEMENT:CILIA & FLAGELLAE
Cell migration
Movement of materials
on cell surface
Always involves
microtubules

Cilia and flagellae

Amoeboid motion

Entire cell or only parts

of it may be affected
Directional
Energy from ATP
Interact with aqueous
environment

Respiratory, reproductive
systems

An ancient development

Cilia on the cells lining the trachea

The only solution!

CILIA & FLAGELLAE

STRUCTURE OF CILIA

Dont Confuse Cilia &

Microvilli!
Cilia

MV

An order of magnitude difference in size

Cilia can be 10-100 m long, and at least 10 m thick
Microvilli rarely exceed 1.0 m thick and 10 m long

Image from Bloom & Fawcett, A Textbook of Histology

ADAPTATIONS FOR
MAINTAINING SHAPE
Odd shapes crucial
to function
Internal
scaffolding
May serve other
needs
Internal routing of
materials
Wiring for
information transfer

Disruption causes
problems
Chemotherapy
agents
e.g. Colchicine

MICROTUBULES &
MICROFILAMENTS
Vital to movement
normal architecture
Ubiquitous and
variable in makeup
May be contractile

Cilia, flagellae, and

amoeboid movement

May be stiff
May be for internal
transport
Polymeric structures

Shorten & lengthen

by adding dimers
Principal
component is
tubulin
May contain
ATPase, dynein

MICROTUBULES
20-50 nm (200-500 )
Cytoskeleton
Mitotic spindle, cilia, flagella

CYTOSKELETAL MICROTUBULES
Maintenance of shape of odd cells, e.g. neurons

MICROFILAMENTS
Intermediate
filaments
Internal structural
scaffold
Anchor nucleus
Connect
cytoskeleton to
PM
Maintain shape of
nuclear envelope

Thin
microfilaments
Mainly actin for
intracellular
contractility
Amoeboid motion,
division, etc.

Myosin usually
involved as well
Gel-like network
in cytosol of other
thin filaments

MICROFILAMENTS &
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
Smaller than
microtubules
(6-10 nm) &
associated with
contractility
Actin & myosin

May be involved
with adhesion
structures
Tonofilaments
of desmosomes

Also a
cytoskeletal
element
Variable in size,
related to
function

MICROFILAMENTS

Astroglial fibers in an astrocyte

MICROFILAMENTS

Microfilaments & secretory vesicles, rat ovarian

granulosa cells

MICROFILAMENTS

Actin & myosin in skeletal muscle

ADAPTATION FOR SURFACE

PROTECTION
Cells are
susceptible to
damage
May be
unavoidable, e.g.
Intestinal cells
eroded by
digestive juices
Strategy is to
delay it

Glycocalyx
Expendable &
renewable
surface covering
Resistant to
erosion
Can be
sacrificed

GLYCOCALYX
Cell surface coat
Carbohydrate in nature
Glyco = sweet calyx
= husk

Term coined by John

Luft in 1965

Found on all cells to

some extent
Usually heaviest at free
surface
Not quite basement
membrane
Functions usually
protective
Some enzymatic activity
PAS+ / RR+ in EM
May not be obvious in
routine preps

GLYCOCALYX

LM image courtesy of Dr. Ihab El-Zhogby

ADAPTATIONS FOR
TISSUE INTEGRITY &
FUNCTIONAL COHESION
Tissues are INTEGRATED both
structurally & functionally
Cells are not independent units
Cells must communicate
Cells must maintain contact with
each other
A whole series of PM
specializations

Occluding (Tight)
Junctions
Adjacent PMs are fused together

OCCLUDING JUNCTION
Function to
separate
inside from
outside
Control
passage of
materials;
forces them to
go through a
cell
Used to
control

DESMOSOMES
Most common
membrane
specialization
Found in all types
of tissues & organs
Similar to
adhering junction
Also for mechanical
integrity
Distinguished by
dense filamentous
component
Anchor cells to each
other

A spot weld
versus a bead
weld

SPECIALIZATIONS FOR
COMMUNICATION
Cells have to know whats going
on around them
Tissue function depends on this

Smooth muscle
Cardiac muscle
Glandular epithelium
Many other examples

Gap Junction
Limited area of
plasma membrane
Found in all tissues
Not for adhesion but
for communication
Site of lowered or
variable resistance
to passage of ions
Membrane gap is
20 or so
Pores on either
side
Cell-to-cell
communication

Gap Junctions

NUCLEUS & NUCLEAR

ENVELOPE
Command & Control
center of cell
All eukaryotic cells
have the entire
blueprint
MOST of it isnt used
Degree of specialization
affects how much is
accessible
Physiological state
determines appearance

Broken down &

reconstructed each
cycle
Nuclear morphology
varies with function &
state
Envelope continuous
with RER

NUCLEUS
& RER
Nuclear
envelope &
RER are
continuous
Ribosomes
found on NE
outer surface

Nuclear pores
located at
turnbacks of
the NE

NUCLEAR PORES
Openings
in nuclear
envelope
Allow
passage of
RNA
Complex
structure
to control
movement

NUCLEAR PORES

SYNTHESIS &
SECRETION
MOST cells have
some synthetic
capability
SOME cells are
specialized for it
ALL use the
same structures
to do it
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi apparatus

ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM
Two types:
Rough ER functions for protein
synthesis
Described many times from LM studies
EM reveals true nature
Porter coined term in 1950s

Smooth ER functions in various ways

Lipid synthesis
Enzymatic degradation pathways
Special role in muscle

RIBOSOM
E
Functional
unit of RER
Bound & free
types exist
Identical
structure
Large &
small
subunits
Entire
ribosome
complex
about 300

ROUGH
E.R.
Prominent

feature in
secretory cells
Pancreatic cells
Plasma cells
Peptic cells

Amounts vary
with cell
function
Usually some
present, may be
minor amount
Accounts for
LM visible
BASOPHILIA

BASOPHILIA & THE

RER

GOLGI APPARATUS
Known since
19th Century
Visible in LM
Nature &
existence
debated until
1960s

Functions to
modify &
package
products of
RER for release

Camillo Golgi (1843-

GOLGI APPARATUS

GOLGI APPARATUS

Contains enzymes for attaching

carbohydrate & lipid moieties to pept

SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM

Visible only in EM
Prominent in cells
making steroids or
lipids
Leydig cells
Luteal cells

Role in
detoxification
Large amounts in
hepatocytes

Collection of
interconnected
tubules & vesicles
Membranous but
not studded with
ribosomes

Summary of function

Membran sel: eksositosis/endositosis

Mitokondria: energy production
RER:sintesa protein, enzym
SER : sintesa hormon,absorbsi/met lipid
Golgi complec:sintesa protein (ekskresi)
Ribosom: mengolah asam amino
Lysosome:fagositosis
Mikrotubuli: transportasi,kerangka sel,
gerakan sel
Sentriol: pembentuk mikrotubuli/mitosis

Thanks!