Mother and daughter are both enjoying the effects of electrically

charging their bodies. Each individual hair on their heads becomes

charged and exerts a repulsive force on the other hairs, resulting in
the “stand-up’’ hairdos that you see here. (Courtesy of Resonance
Research Corporation)
 ELECTRIC FIELDS
*Properties of electric charges
*Coulomb’s law
*Electric field
*Electric field of continuous charge
distribution
*Electric field lines
*Motion of charged particles in a
uniform electric field
 Learning Outcomes
• On the completion of this chapter students
should be able to:
• Draw, explain, write the strength and
determine the electric field around a
charged particle and a configuration of
charged particle and the electric forces
experienced by or exerted upon any
charged particle or any configuration of
charged particles.
1. Properties of electric
charges
1.1 Types of electric charges
• Benjamin Franklin(1706-1790)
• Positive charge – possessed by protons
• Negative charge – possessed by electrons
• Charges of same sign repel
• Charges of opposite signs attract
(a) A negatively charged rubber rod suspended by a thread is
attracted to a positively charged glass rod.
(b) A negatively charged rubber rod is repelled by another
negatively charged rubber rod.
 1.2 Conservation of electric
charge
• In isolated system, electric charge is
always conserved
• When one object is rubbed against
another, charged is not created
• electrified state due to transfer of charge
from one object to the other
When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, electrons are transferred from the
glass to the silk. Because of conservation of charge, each electron adds
negative charge to the silk, and an equal positive charge is left behind
on the rod. Also, because the charges are transferred in discrete
bundles, the charges on the two objects are +/-e, or +/-2e, or +/-3e, and
so on.
 1.3 Quantized
• In 1909, Robert Milikan discovered electric
charges always occurs in multiple of a
fundamental amount of charge, e
• Electric charge, q is said to quantized (exists in
discrete “packets”)
• q = Ne, N is an integer
• Electron has charge –e and proton has charge +e
• Neutron has no charge
• The charge for an electron, e = 1.60219 x 10-19 C
• Hence, it takes 6.24 x 1018 electrons to produce 1
C of charge.
 Note:
• Need 6.24 x 1018 electrons to produce 1 C
of charge.
• Approx. 1023 free electrons in 1 cm3 of
copper.
• 1 C is quite a large amount of charge
• In a typical experiment, where rubber or
glass rod is charged by friction, net charge
produce only about 10-6 C
 2. Classification of materials
• Conductors – some of electrons are not
bounded to atoms and free to move
• Insulators – electrons are bounded to
atoms and not free to move
• Semiconductors – somewhere between
conductors and insulators
• Superconductors – perfect conductors,
charges move without resistance.
3. Charging by induction
Charging a metallic object by induction (that is,
the two objects never touch each other).
(a) A neutral metallic sphere, with equal numbers
of positive and negative charges.

(b) The electrons on the neutral sphere are

redistributed when a charged rubber rod is
placed near the sphere.

(c) When the sphere is grounded, some of its

electrons leave through the ground wire.

(d) When the ground connection is removed, the

sphere has excess positive charge that is
nonuniformly distributed.

(e) When the rod is removed, the remaining

electrons redistribute uniformly and there is a
net uniform distribution of positive charge on
the sphere.
The charged object on
the left induces a
charge distribution on
the surface of an
insulator due to
realignment of charges
in the molecules.
A charged comb attracts bits of paper because charges
in molecules in the paper are realigned.
 4. Coulomb’s Law
• Charles Coulomb (1736-1806), measured
force between charged objects using torsion
balance
• Electric force is proportional to inverse square
of their separation distance, r, i.e
1
Fe α
2
r
Coulomb’s torsion balance,
used to establish the
inverse-square law for the
electric force between two
charges.
Restoring torque of twisted
fiber is proportional to the
angle through which the
fiber rotates.
 4.1 Properties of electric force
between two stationary charge
particles: The electric force..
• is inversely proportional to square of the
separation between particles and directed along
the line joining them
• is proportional to the product of the charges q1
and q2 on the two particles
• is attractive if charges are of opposite sign and
repulsive if the charges are of the same sign
• Is a conservative force
 4.2 Coulomb’s Law equation
• An equation giving the magnitude of electric
force between two point charges
• (Point charges defined as a particle of zero
size that carries an electric charge)
q1 q2
Fe  ke
r2
Where ke is called the Coulomb constant and
ke = 8.9875 x 109 Nm2C-2 (S.I units) or
ke = 1/ 4πЄ0 and
Є0 = permittivity of free space
= 8.8542 x 10-12 C2N-1m-2
 4.3 Example: Question 1

• The electron and proton of a hydrogen

atom are separated by a distance of
approximately 5.3 x 10-11 m. Find the
magnitude of the electric force.
Example: Solution 1
q1 q2
Fe  ke
2
r
9 (1.6x10 19 )2
Fe  8.99x10 x
5.3x10 11

Fe = 8.2 x 10-8 N
 4.4 Electric Force is a vector

Two point charges separated by a distance r exert a force on

each other that is given by Coulomb’s law. The force F21
exerted by q2 on q1 is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction to the force F12 exerted by q1 on q2. When the
charges are of the same sign, the force is repulsive.
 When the charges are of opposite signs, the
force is attractive.
 q1q2 ˆ
F12  k e r
2
r

Where, rˆ is a unit vector directed from q1 to q2.

Since the force obeys Newton’s third law, then
F12 = - F21
 4.5 Example: Question 2
• Consider three charges located at the
corners of a right triangle as shown in
figure, where q1 = q3 = 5.0 μC, q2
= -2.0 μC, and a = 0.10 m. Find the
resultant force exerted on q3.
The force exerted by q1 on q3 is F13. The force exerted by
q2 on q3 is F23. The resultant force F3 exerted on q3 is the
vector sum F and F .
This dramatic photograph
captures a lightning bolt
striking a tree near some
rural homes. Lightning is
associated with very strong
electric fields in the
atmosphere.
 5. The electric field
• Examples of field forces: gravitational and
electric
• Field forces act through space even
though no physical contact between
interacting objects
• If gravitational force, Fg = mg
• then, gravitational field, g = Fg/m
• Michael Faraday introduces concept of
electric field.
• An electric field is said to exist in the
region of space around a charged object
called the source charge.
• When another charged object- the test
charge - enters this field, an electric force
acts on it.
A small positive test charge, q0 placed near an object
carrying a much larger positive charge Q, experiences
an electric field E directed as shown.
 5.1 Definition of electric field
• The electric field vector E at a point is defined
as the electric force Fe acting on a positive test
charge q0 placed at that point divided by the
test charge:

Fe
E 
q0
 Note
Fe
E
q0
E is the field produced by some charge or charge
distribution
E is not produced by the test charge
The existense of an electric field is a property of its source
The presence of the test charge is not necessary for the
field to exist
The test charge serve as a detector of the electric field.
 Note
Fe qq0 ˆ
E  and Fe  k e r
2
q0 r
q ˆ
Hence, E  ke r
r2
At any point P, the total electric field due to a
group of source charges equals the vector sum
of the electric field of all the charges, ie

qi ˆ
E  ke r 2
ri
i i
A test charge q0 at point P is a distance r
from a point charge q. (a) If q is
positive, then the force on the test
charge is directed away from q.
For the positive source charge, the
electric field at P points radially outward
from q.
If q is negative, then the force on the test
charge is directed toward q.
For the negative source charge, the electric
field at P points radially inward toward q.
 5.2 Example: Question 1

• A charge q1 = 7.0 μC is located at the

origin and a second charge q2 = -5.0 μC is
located on the x-axis, 0.30 m from the
origin. Find the electric field at the point P,
which has coordinates (0, 0.40 ) m.
The total electric
field E at P equals
the vector sum E1
+ E2, where E1 is
the field due to the
positive charge q 1
and E2 is the field
due to the negative
charge q2.
 6. Electric field, E of a
continuous charge distribution
• Suppose we have charges very close to
each other such that their separation is
very much smaller than the distance to
some point of interest( that is the point
where the electric field is to be calculated)
• Then the system of charges can be
modeled as continuous
• The system of closely spaced charges is
equivalent to a total charge that is
continuously distributed along some line,
over some surface or throughout some
volume
• Lets divide the charge distribution into
small element, each containing a small
charge ∆q
• Next, lets calculate the electric field due to
one these element at a point P
• Then we evaluate the total electric field at
P due to the charge distribution by
summing the contributions of all the
charge elements.
 The electric field at P due to one q ˆ
charge element carrying charge ∆q is E  k e r
r2

The total electric field at P due to qi ˆ

all elements in the charge
distribution is approx.
E  ke 
r 2
ri
i i

If the charge distribution is modeled as continuous, the

total field at P in the limit ∆q→0

qi ˆ dq ˆ
E  k e lim
qi 0
 2
ri  k e
r

2
r
i ri
• Considering the charge is uniformly
distributed, the use of the charge density is
convenient in calculating the over a line,
surface or volume.
• If charge is distributed uniformly throughout a
volume V, the volume charge density ρ is
defined as
Q

V
Where ρ has units of coulombs per cubic
meter (C.m-3 )
• If charge is distributed uniformly on a surface
area A, the surface charge density σ is
defined as

Q

A
Where σ has units of coulombs per square
meter (C.m-2 )
• If charge is distributed uniformly along a line
of length l , the linear charge density λ is
defined as

Q

l
Where λ has units of coulombs per meter
(C.m-1 )
• If the charge is distributed non-uniformly
over a volume, surface or line, the amount of
charge dq in a small volume, surface or
length element are

• dq = ρdV

• dq = σdA

• dq = λdl
 6.1 E due to a charged rod
• A rod of length l has a uniform positive
charge per unit length λ and a total charge
Q. Calculate the electric field at a point P
that is located along the long axis of the
rod and a distance a from one end.
 dq dx
dE  k e  ke
2 2
x x
 dq dx
dE  k e  ke
x2 x2
a l
dx
E  k e
x 2
a
a l a l
dx  1
E  k e
x 2 k e  
 x a
a
1 1  k eQ
E  k e   
 a a  l  a(a  l)

Where Q = λl
6.3 E of a uniform ring of charge
• A ring of radius a carries a uniformly
distributed positive total charge Q.
Calculate the electric field due to the ring
at a point P lying a distance x from its
center along the central axis perpendicular
to the plane of the ring.
 dq
dE  k e
2
r
A uniformly charged ring of radius a.
(a) The field at P on the x axis due to an element
of charge dq.
• The field has an x component,
• dEx = dE cos θ along the x-axis, and
• y component perpendicular to the x-axis
• the perpendicular component will cancel
each other out (sum = 0)
(b) The total electric field at P is along the x axis. The
perpendicular component of the field at P due to segment 1 is
canceled by the perpendicular component due to segment 2.
• r = (x2 + a2)½ and cos θ = x/r, hence

 dq  x kex
dE x  dE cos   k e   dq
2 r
 
3
 r 
x 2  a2 2
• All segments make same contribution to
the field because they are all equidistance
from point P, hence total field at P:
kex
dE x  dq
 
3
2 2 2
x a
kex kex
Ex   dq   dq
   
3 3
x 2  a2 2 x 2  a2 2

kex
Ex  Q
 
3
x 2  a2 2
 kex
Ex  Q
 
3
x 2  a2 2

• What will be the electric field when x = 0?

 6.4 E of a uniformly charged
disk
• A disk of radius R has a uniform surface
charge density σ. Calculate the electric
field at a point P that lies along the central
perpendicular axis of a disk and a distance
x from the center of the disk.
A uniformly charged
disk of radius R. The
electric field at an
axial point P is
directed along the
central axis,
perpendicular to the
plane of the disk.

Fig 23-19, p.722

Consider the disk as a set of concentric rings
(Using results from previous example)
A ring of radius r and width dr will have a
surface area dA = 2πrdr
The charge dq = dAσ, hence

kex
dE x  (2rdr )
x 2
r 2
 3
2
To find the total field at P, integrate over limits
r = 0 to r = R ( x is a constant)

kex
dE x  (2rdr )
x 2
r 2
 3
2

R 2rdr
E x  k e x 
0
x 2
r 2
2
3

E x  k e x
0   R 2
x r 2  3
2 2
d(r )
 R
 2 2 1 
 (x  r ) 2

E x  k e x
 1 
 2  0
 
 x 
E x  2k e 1  
1
 (x 2  R2 ) 2 
 

The result is valid for all values of x> 0

If R >> x, the value of the field close to the disk can be estimated,
The expression in the parenthesis reduces to unity, hence

Ex =2πkeσ = σ/ 2Є0
 7. Electric field lines
• Representation of the electric field pattern
pictorially
• The electric vector E is tangent to the electric
field at each point
• The number of lines per unit area through a
surface perpendicular to the lines is
proportional to the magnitude of the electric
field in that region. Thus the field lines are close
together where the electric field is strong and
far apart where the field is weak
Electric field lines penetrating two surfaces.
The magnitude of the field is greater on
surface A than on surface B.
The electric field
lines for a point
charge.
(a) For a positive
point charge, the
lines are directed
radially outward.
The electric field lines
for a point charge.
(b) For a negative point
charge, the lines are
directed radially
inward. Note that the
figures show only
those field lines that lie
in the plane of the
page.
The electric field lines
for a point charge.

(c) The dark areas are

small pieces of thread
suspended in oil, which
align with the electric
field produced by a
small charged
conductor at the center.
(a) The electric field
lines for two point
charges of equal
magnitude and
opposite sign (an
electric dipole). The
number of lines
leaving the positive
charge equals the
number terminating
at the negative
charge.
(b) The dark lines are
small pieces of
thread suspended in
oil, which align with
the electric field of a
dipole.
(a) The electric field
lines for two positive
point charges.
(b) Pieces of thread
suspended in oil,
which align with
the electric field
created by two
equal-magnitude
positive charges.
Courtesy of Harold
M. Waage,
Princeton
University
 7.1 Rules for drawing electric
field lines
• The lines must begin on a positive charge and
terminate on a negative charge. In the case of
an excess of one type of charge, some line will
begin or end infinitely far away.
• The number of lines drawn leaving a positive
charge or approaching a negative charge is
proportional to the magnitude of the charge
• No two field lines can cross.
8. Motion of charged particles in
a uniform electric field
• When a particle of charge q and mass m is
placed in an electric field, E, the electric
force exerted on the charge is qE.
• Hence, Fe = qE = ma
• Therefore acceleration of particle is given
by, a = qE/ m
• If E is uniform, then a is a constant.
• If E is uniform, then a is a constant.
• If particle is positively charge, then
accelerate in direction of electric field
• If particle is negatively charge, then
acceleration is in the direction opposite the
electric field.
A positive point charge
q of mass m is released
from rest in a uniform
electric field E directed
along x axis.

Since uniform E, then a

is constant = qE/m

Hence the position of

the particle as a
function of time can be
given by x = ½at2
qE 2
x t
2m
Fig 23-25, p.726
 qE
The speed of the particle: v  at  t
m
2  2qE 
Also: v  2ax   x
 m 

The change in kinetic energy after moving a distance ∆x = xf - xi

1 2 1  2qE 
K  mv  m x  qEx
2 2  m 

Using work-energy theorem: W = F∆x= qE∆x = ∆K

An electron is projected horizontally into a uniform electric
field produced by two charged plates. The electron undergoes
a downward acceleration (opposite E), and its motion is
parabolic while it is between the plates.
 E is in the positive y direction, hence the
acceleration of the electron is in the opposite
direction that is eE ˆ
a j
me
eE
meaning ax = 0 and ay  
me

Since acc. is constant, and v0x = v0 and v0y = 0

hence, vx = v0 = constant and
eE
v y  ayt   t
me
 The position of the particle :
x = v0t and

2
1 2 1 eE 2 1 eE x
y  ayt   t  ( )
2 2 me 2 me 2
v0

The trajectory is a parabola. Gravitational force

is neglected in this calculation because it is
small compared to the electric force
Schematic diagram of a cathode ray tube. Electrons leaving the
cathode C are accelerated to the anode A. In addition to
accelerating electrons, the electron gun is also used to focus
the beam of electrons, and the plates deflect the beam.
 PROBLEM SOLVING
• Halliday & Resnick:
• Chap. 21: 1, 3, 7, 9, 21, 23
• Chap 22: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 22, 27, 31,
35, 37