I.

IntroductiontoWave
Propagation

Wavesontransmissionlines
Planewavesinonedimension
Reflectionandtransmissionatjunctions
Spatialvariationsforharmonictime
dependence
Impedancetransformationsinspace
Effectofmaterialconductivity
July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

WavesonTransmissionLines
EquivalentcircuitsusingdistributedCandL
Characteristicwavesolutions
Powerflow

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

Examples of Transmission Lines

TwoWireLine
(TwistedPair)

I(z,t)+
V(z,t)

CoaxialLine

I(z,t)+
V(z,t)
Conductors

Dielectric

StripLine
July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

PropertiesofTransmissionLines(TLs)
Twowireshavingauniformcrosssectioninone
(z)dimension
ElectricalquantitiesconsistofvoltageV(z,t)and
currentI(z,t)thatarefunctionsofdistancezalong
thelineandtimet
Linesarecharacterizedbydistributedcapacitance
CandinductanceLbetweenthewires
CandLdependontheshapeandsizeoftheconductors
andthematerialbetweenthem
July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

CapacitanceofaSmallLengthofLine

I(t)+

Opencircuit

V(t)
l

The two wires act as a capacitor. Voltage applied to the wire

induces a charge on the wires,
whose time derivative is the current
Since the total charge,
and hence the current,
is proportional to
the length
l of the wires. Let the constant of proportionality be
C Farads/meter. Then
dV(t)
I(t) =Cl
dt

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

InductanceofaSmallLengthofLine
B

Shortcircuit

I(t)+
V(t)
l

The wire acts as a-one

turn coil. Current applied to the wires induc
a magnetic field throught thewhose
loop, time derivative generates th
voltage. The amount of magnetic flux (magnetic
area),
field
and hence
the voltage,
is proportional to the length
l of the wires. Let the constant
of proportality be
L Henrys/meter. Then
dI(t)
V(t) =Ll
dt

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

CandLforanAirFilledCoaxialLine
C=

a
b

2o
ln(b a)

L=

o
ln(b a)
2

109
Permittivity of vacuum
: o
Farads/m
36
Permeability of vacuum
: o 4 107 Henrys/m

Suppose that
a =0.5 mm and
b=2 mm. Then
2o
ln4
C=
=40.1 pF/m
and L = o
=0.277H/m
ln4
2
Note that
1
1
L ln(b a) o ln4
=
=3108 m/s and
=
=
377=83.2
LC
oo
C
2
o 2

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

CandLforParallelPlateLine
w
h
z

w
h
L =
h
w
Note that for air between the plates
=o and =o so that
C =

1
1
=
=3108 m/s
LC
oo

July,2003

L h o h
=
= 377
C w o w

2003byH.L.Berto

TwoPortEquivalentCircuitofLengthz
I(z,t)+
V(z,t)

I(z,t)+

zz+zz
+I(z+z,t)

V(z,t) LzCz V(z+z,t)

Kirchhoff circuit equations

I (z,t)
V(z+z,t)
V(z,t) =Lz
+V(z+z,t)
I (z,t) =Cz
+I (z+z,t)
t
t
or
V(z+z,t) V(z,t)
I (z,t)
I (z+z,t) I (z,t)
V(z+z,t)
=L
=C
z
t
z
t

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

TransmissionLineEquations

Taking the limit as

z 0 gives the Transmission Line Equations
V(z,t)
I(z,t)
I (z,t)
V(z,t)
=L
=C
z
t
z
t
These are coupled,
first order,
partial differential equations whose solution
are in terms of functions
F(t- z/v) andG(t +z/v) that are determined by
the sources. The solutions for voltage and current are of the form
1
V(z,t) =F(t- z/v) +G(t +z/v)
I (z,t) = [F (t - z/v) - G(t+z/v)]
Z
Direct substitution into the TL Equations,
and using the chain rule gives
1
1
[F'(t- z/v) - G'(t +z/v)] =L [F '(t - z/v) - G'(t+z/v)]
v
Z
1
[ F'(t- z/v) +G'(t +z/v)] =C[F'(t - z/v) +G'(t +z/v)]
vZ
where the prime
) indicates
('
differentiation with respect to the total var
inside the parentheses
F or
ofG.

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2003byH.L.Berto

10

ConditionsforExistenceofTLSolution
For the two equations to be satisfied
1 L
1
=
and
=C
v Z
vZ

1
LC
Multiplying both sides of the two equations2 gives
=
or
vZ Z
1
v=
m/s
LC
vZ L
Dividing both sides of the two equations gives
=
or
v ZC
L
Z=

C
v andZ are interpreted as the wave velocity and wave impeda

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

11

F(tz/v)IsaWaveTravelingin+zDirection
Assume that
G(t +z/v) =0
Then the voltage and current are

t=0

V(z,0)=F[(1/v)(z)]

V(z,t) =F(tz/v) =F [(1 v)(zvt)]

1
1
I(z,t) = F(tz/v) = F [(1 v)(zvt)]
Z
Z

az
a

F(t z/v) represents a wave disturbance

traveling in the positive
z direction with t>0
velocity
v.
Note that the current in the conductor at
positive potential flows in the direction of
wave propagation.

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

V(z,t)=F[(1/v)(z
vt)]
a+vtz
a+vt
vt

12

G(t+z/v)IsaWaveTravelinginzDirection
Assume that
F(tz/v) =0
Then the voltage and current are

t=0

V(z,t) =G(t+z/v) =G[(1 v)(z+vt)]

V(z,0)=G[(1/v)(z)]
a2az

1
1
I(z,t) = G(t +z/v) = G[(1 v)(z+vt)]
Z
Z
G(t +z/v) represents a wave disturbance
traveling in the negative
z direction with t>0
velocity
v.

V(z,t)=G[(1/v)(z+vt)]
2avtz

vt

Because of the minus sign

I (z,t),
in the
avt
physical current in the conductor at positive
potential flows in the direction of wave propagation.

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

13

ExampleofSourceExcitation
Excitation at one end of a- infinite
semi length of transmission line.
Source has open circuit voltage
VS (t) and internal resistance
RS .

Radiation condition requires that excited waves travel away from source
Terminal conditionsz=0:
at
VS(t) =RS I (0,t) +V(0,t)
1
=RS F(t) +F (t)
Z
Z
or F(t) =
VS (t)
Z +RS

RSI(0,t)
VS(t)+ V(0,t)

z
0

VS(t) =RSI (0,t) +V(0,t)

1
=RS G(t) +G(t)
Z
Z
or G(t) =
VS (t)
Z+RS

July,2003

I(0,t)RS

2003byH.L.Berto

V(0,t)
0z

VS(t)

14

ReceiveVoltageFurtherAlongLine
Voltage observed on a high impedance scope atl from
a distance
source.
Z
V(l,t) =F (tl v) =
VS (tl v)
Z +RS

RS

Delayed version of the source voltage

VS(t)+

V(l,t)

with the semi

- infinite line acting as a
load resisor for the source.
V(l,t) =G[t+(l v)] =

Scope

z
0l

Z
VS (tl v)
Z+RS

Scope

RS

Delayed version of the source voltage

with the semi

- infinite line acting as a
load resisor for the source.

July,2003

V(l,t)

VS(t)

l0z

2003byH.L.Berto

15

PowerCarriedbyWaves
Instantaneous power
P(z,t) carried past plane P(z,t)
perpendicular
z. to
I(z,t)

V(z,t)

P(z,t) =V(z,t)I (z,t)

1
=[F(tz v) +G(t +z v)] [ F(tz v) G(t+z v)]
Z
1 2
2
= [F (tz v) G (t +z v)]
Z

The two waves carry power independently in the direction of wa

propagation
For each wave,
a transmission line extending
z
toacts as a resistor

of value Z,
even though the wires were assumed to have no re

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

16

SummaryofSolutionsforTLs
SolutionsforVandIconsistsofthesumofthe
voltagesandcurrentoftwowavespropagatingin
zdirections
Foreitherwave,thephysicalcurrentflowsinthe
directionofpropagationinthepositivewire
SemiinfinitesegmentofTLappearsatits
terminalsasaresistanceofvalueZ(eventhough
thewiresareassumedtohavenoresistance)
Thewavescarrypowerindependentlyinthe
directionofwavepropagation
July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

17

PlaneWavesinOneDimension
Electricandmagneticfieldsintermsofvoltage
andcurrent
Maxwellsequationsfor1Dpropagation
Planewavesolutions
Powerandpolarization

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2003byH.L.Berto

18

ElectricFieldandVoltageforParallelPlates
w
x
Ex(z,t)
z
y

h
+
V(z,t)

The electric field goes from the positive plate to the negative p
w >>h, the electric field outside of the plates is very small. B
the plates it is nearly constant over- section
the cross
with value
1
E x(z,t) = V(z,t) Volts/m orV(z,t) =hEx(z,t).
h
w
Recall thatC = .
h

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

19

MagneticFieldandCurrentforParallelPlates
w
x

I(z,t)

z
y

Hy(z,t)orBy(z,t)

The magnetic field links the currents in the plates.

w >>h, the
If magnetic
field outside of the plates is very small. Between the plates it is n
constant over the -cross
section,as if in a solenoid,
with value
1
1
1

Hy(z,t) By(z,t) = I (z,t) = I (z,t) Amps/m or

I(z,t) =wHy(z,t).

w
h
Recall thatL = .
w

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

20

MaxwellsEquationsin1D
Inserting the foregoing expressions
V(z,t),
forC, I (z,t) andL into the
Transmission Line equations

h
w
[hEx (z,t)] =
[hEx(z,t)]
[wHy (z,t)]
[wHy (z,t)] =
z
wt
z
h t
or

E x (z,t) = Hy(z,t)
Hy (z,t) = E x(z,t)
z
t
z
t
These are the two Maxwell equations for linearly polarized wave prop
1
- D. They are independent
h,w)
of and
(
refer to the fields.
We may think of the plates as being taken
x,y) to
so
( they need not be

considered.
The field are in the form of a planewhich
wave,covers all space and is a sim
approximation for fields in a limited regionsuch
of space,
as a laser beam.

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

21

PlaneWaves:SolutionstoMaxwellEquations

Maxwell'
s equations are formally equivalent to the Transmission Line E
The solution is therefore in terms of two wave traveling in opposite d
along
z.
1
E x(z,t) =F (t z/v) +G(t +z/v)
H y(z,t) = [F(t z/v) G(t +z/v)]

In air v=

c =3108 m/s is the speed of lightand

= o =377
o
oo

is the wave impedance.

For waves in simple dielectric medium,
o is multiplied by the relative dielect
constant
r .
For normal media
r >1, but it can be a function of frequency. As and exa
in water at radio frequencies (below 20
r =81
GHz)
, but at optical
frequencies
r =1.78.

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

22

PowerDensityCarriedbyPlaneWaves
Total instantaneous power carried in parallel plate line
P(z,t) =V(z,t)I (z,t) =[hEx (z,t)][wHy (z,t)]
=hwEx(z,t)H y(z,t) watts

E
Power density crossing any plane perpendicular
Directionof

toz is

p(z,t) =P(z,t) hw=E x(z,t)H y(z,t) watt/m

propagation
H

1 2
= [F (tz/v) G 2(t+z/v)]

Direction ofH y is such that turning a right hand screw in the

direction from
E x to Hy advances the screw in the direction of
propagation

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

23

Polarization
The physical properties of a plane wave are independent of
coordinate system.

For a plane wave traveing in one direction

:
Electric field vector
E must be perpedicular to the direction of
propagation.
Magnetic field vector
H must be perpedicular
E to
and to the
direction of propagation.
2
The vector cross product
p =E H watt/m
is in the direction

of propagation.
The ratioE H is the wave impedance
.

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

24

ExamplesofPolarization
Linear polaization E
of alongx

Linear polaization
E of
alongy

E =ax cos(t
[
z/v)]

E =ay sin(tz/v)
[
]

1
H =ay cos(t
z/v)]
[

1
H =ax sin(t
[ z/v)]

E
xz

ax = unit vector along

x
ay = unit vector along
y

xz

E
yH

y
Circular polarization

E =ax cos(t
[
z/v)] +ay sin(t
[
z/v)]
1
H = {ay cos(tz/v)
[
] ax sin(tz/v)
[
]}

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

25

SummaryofPlaneWaves
PlanewavesarepolarizedwithfieldsEandH
perpendiculartoeachotherandtothedirectionof
propagation
Wavevelocityisthespeedoflightinthemedium
ExHwatts/m2isthepowerdensitycarriedbya
planewave

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

26

ReflectionandTransmissionat
Junctions
Junctionsbetweendifferentpropagationmedia
Reflectionandtransmissioncoefficientsfor1D
propagation
Conservationofpower,reciprocity
Multiplereflection/transmission

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

27

JunctionsBetweenTwoRegions
Terminal condtions for the

I(0,t)I(0+,t)

Junction of two TL'

s
V(0,t) =V(0+,t)

TL1V(0,t)+V(0+,t)TL2

I(0 ,t) =I (0 ,t)

0z
Boundary conditions at the

interface of two media

E x(0,t) =E x (0+,t)

Ex(0,t)Ex(0+,t)

Hy (0,t) =Hy (0+,t)

Plane wave propagation and

Hy(0,t)Hy(0+,t)

Medium1Medium2
boundary conditions are analogus
to junctioning of twosTL'

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

28

ReflectionandTransmission
Incidentwave

ExIn(z,t)=F1(tz/v1)
HyIn(z,t)Transmittedwave
z

Reflectedwave
v1and1v2and2

A source creates an incident wave whose electric field is given by the

functionF1(t- z/v1). Using the boundary conditions we solve for the unkn

functionsG1(t+z/v1) andF2 (t- z/v2) for the electric fields of the reflected
and transmitted waves
:
E x (0,t) =F1(t)+G1(t)=F2 (t)=E x (0+,t)
1
1
+
Hy(0 ,t) = [F1(t)- G1(t)] = F2(t)=H y(0 ,t)
1
2

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

29

ReflectionandTransmissionCoefficients
Solution of the boundary condition equations
G1(t) and
for F2(t) in terms of
F1(t)
G1(t) = F1(t)
F2(t) =F1(t)
The reflection coefficient
and transmission coefficient
are given :by

= 2 1
2 +1

2 2
=1+ =
2 +1

Examples
:
I. Suppose medium 1 is air so
1 that
= o o =377 and medium 2 has
relative dielectric constant
r =4 so that2 = o ro =0.5. Then going
from air
- to- dielectricad =

July,2003

0.5
1
1 2
= and ad =1 =
0.5 +
3
3 3

2003byH.L.Berto

30

ReflectionandTransmission,cont.

II. Now suppose the wave is incident from the dielectric onto air so that
is the dielectric
(1 =0.5 ) and medium 2 is(air
2 =). Then going from
0.5
1
1 4
dielectic
- to- air, da =
=+ andad =1+ =
+0.5
3
3 3
Note that
:
1.da =ad
2. Since T is the ratio of fields,
not power,
it can be greater than 1.

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

31

ReflectedandTransmittedPower
Instantaneous power carried by the incident
pIn (z,t),
wave
the reflected wave
pRe(z,t), and the transmitted wave
pTr (z,t)
1
pIn (z,t) =E xIn (z,t)H yIn (z,t) = F12 (t z v1)
1
1
pRe(z,t) =E xRe(z,t)HyRe(z,t) = G12(t+z v1)
1
1 2
p (z,t) =E (z,t)H (z,t) = F2 (tz v1)
2
1
Just on either side of the interface
pIn (0,t) = F12 (t) as well as
Z1
Tr

Tr
x

Tr
y

1
1
pRe(0,t) = G12 (t) = 2 F12(t)
1
1

July,2003

1
1
and pTr (0+,t) = F22(t) = 2 F12(t)
2
2

2003byH.L.Berto

32

ConservationofPowerandReciprocity
In

Re

Tr

Conservation of power requires

p that
(0 ,t) p (0 ,t) =p (0 ,t) so that
1 2
1
1
F1 (t) 2 F12 (t) = 2 F12 (t)
1
1
2

or

12 = 2

1
2

This relation is easily shown to be satisfied from the expressions

, .
for
For waves going from medium 2 to medium
the reflection
1,
coefficient
12 is

the negative21
of going from medium 1 to medium 2. Thus for eit
Re

p (0 ,t)
pTr (0+,t)
2
2
case the ratios In =
and In =1
are the same.
p (0 ,t)
p (0 ,t)
Therefore the same fraction of the incident power is reflected from a

transmitted through the interface for waves incident from either

This result is an example of a very general wave property called rec

July,2003

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33

TerminationofaTransmissionLine
Terminal condtions
V(0,t) =RL I (0,t)
RL
F(t) +G(t) = {F(t) G(t)}
Z
Solving for
G(t) in terms F
of(t),

I(0,t)
TLV(0,t)+RL

G(t) =F(t) where the reflection

0z

R Z
coefficient is= L
RL +Z
Special cases
:
1. Matched termination,
RL =Z and =0. Simulates a semi
- infinite TL
2. Open circuit,
RL and =1. Total reflection with
V(0,t) =2F (t).
3. Short circuit,
RL =0 and =1. Total reflection with
V(0,t) =0.

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

34

ReflectionsatMultipleInterfaces
x
Incidentwave
ExIn(z,t)=F1(tz/v1)
Transmitted
HyIn(z,t)waves
0lz
Reflectedwaves
Multiple
internal
reflections
v1and1v2and2v3and3

Multiple internal reflections occur within the finite thickness layer.

internal waves generate multiple reflected waves in medium 1 and
transmitted waves in medium 3.

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

35

ScatteringDiagramforaLayer
1

2l/v2

lz

4l/v2

Space
- time diagram indicates the relative amplitudes of the electric fi
the individual components of the multiply reflected waves. In adding
account must be taken of the relative delay between the different co

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

36

SummaryofReflectionandTransmission
Theplanarinterfacebetweentwomediaisanalogoustothe
junctionoftwotransmissionlines
Atasingleinterface(junction)theequationT=1+isa
statementofthecontinuityofelectricfield(voltage)
Theratioofreflectedtoincidentpower=
Powerisconservedsothattheratiooftransmittedtoincident
power=1
Thereciprocityconditionimpliesthatreflectedandtransmitted
powerarethesameforincidencefromeithermedium
Atmultipleinterfaces,delayedmultipleinteractionscomplicate
thedescriptionofthereflectedandtransmittedfieldsfor
arbitrarytimedependence
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37

SpatialVariationsforHarmonic
TimeDependence
Travelingandstandingwaverepresentationsof
thezdependence
Periodaveragepower
Impedancetransformationstoaccountforlayered
materials
Frequencydependenceofreflectionfromalayer

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38

HarmonicTimeDependenceatz=0
Suppose that the voltage and current
E x and
(or
H y fields) have harmonic time
dependence
exp( jt) atz =0. Then
V(0,t) =V(0)e jt =F(t) +G(t)
1
I(0,t) =I (0)e jt = [F(t) G(t)]
Z
where
V(0) andI (0) are the complex voltage and current
z=0. at

The functions
F(t) andG(t) can satisfy these equations only if they too ha
harmonic time dependence. Hence
F(t) =V +e jt

and

G(t)
=V e jt

whereV + =12 [V(0) +ZI (0)] and V = 12 [V(0) ZI (0)] are the complex
voltage amplitudes of the waves traveling
z directions.
in the

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39

TravelingWaveRepresentation
At other locations
z 0
V(z,t) =F(tz v) +G(t +z v) =V +expj(tz
v)] +V exp[ j(t +z v)]
[
={V +ejz v +V e+jz v}e jt =V(z)e jt
1
1
I(z,t) = {F(tz v) G(t +z v)}= {V +exp[ j(t z v)] V expj(t
+z v)]}
[
Z
Z
1
= {V +ejz v V e+j z v}ejt =I (z)ejt
Z
Here V(z) is the phasor voltageI (z)
andis the phasor current,
which give the
spatial variation for the implied time dependence
exp( jt).

Define the wave number (propagation constant)

k v m1 . Then
1
V(z) =V +ejkz +V e+jkz
and I (z) = {V +ejkz V e+jkz}
Z
is the traveling wave representation of phasor voltage and current.

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40

StandingWaveRepresentation

Substituting the expressions

V + for
andV in terms of
V(0) andI (0),
and rearranging terms gives the standing wave representation of th
voltage and current
:
V(z) = 12 V(0)[ejkz +e+jkz] +12 ZI (0)[ejkz e+jkz] =V(0)coskzjZI (0)sinkz
1
I(z) = V(0)[ejkz e+jkz] +12 I (0)[ejkz +e+jkz] =I (0)coskzj V(0)sinkz
Z
Z
1
2

The wavenumberk=
is v =2f v=2 where is the
wavelength
=v f =2 k
For plane waves in a dielectric medium
k=

July,2003

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41

VariationoftheVoltageMagnitude
For V =0 we have a pure traveling
For I (0)=0 we have a pure standing
+ jkz

wave V(z) =V e

V(z) =V +ejkz =V +

. The magnitude
waveV(z) =V(0)coskz. Its magnitude
is independentV(z) =V(0) coskz is periodic with

of z.

period k= 2.
V(z)

V(z)

|V+|

V(0)

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

0z

42

StandingWaveBeforeaConductor
Incidentwave

ExIn(z)

Perfect

HyIn(z)

conductor

0z

ExRe(z)

Plane wave incident on a perfectly

conduticng plate and the equivalen
circuit of a shorted TL
E x(0) =0 and H y(0) =I SC
The standing wave field is
E x(z) = 12 I SC [ejkz e+jkz]

Reflectedwave

ISC
,vshort

=jI SC sinkz
Two waves of equal amplitude and
traveling in opposite directions cre
a standing wave.

0z

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

43

StandingWaveBeforeaConductor,cont.
Plot of the magnitude of the standing wave field
E x (z) =I SC sinkz
ISC

Since k = v =2f v =2 the nodes (zeros) of the field ar

separated by a distance
k z = or z = k = 2

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

44

PeriodAveragedPower

For harmonic time dependence on

the
a TL,
time average over one perio

of the instantaneous power

P(z) =
is 12 Re{V(z)I (z)} watts
Using the traveling wave representation

2
2
1
+ jkz
+jkz 1
+ jkz
+jkz
+

P(z) = Re[V e +V e ] [V e V e ] = {V V }
Z

2Z
Note that the average power is the algebraic sum of the power c
the incident and reflected and
waves,
it is independent
z. of
1
2

For harmonic plane waves

p(z) =12 Re{E x(z)H y(z)} watts/m
2
2
1
In terms of traveling waves
p(z) = { E xIn E xRe }
2

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

45

ReflectionFromaLoadImpedance
For a complex load impedance
ZL
Z
V(0) =V + +V =ZL I (0) = L (V + V )
Z
Solving forV in terms of
V + gives
V =V + where the complex
reflection coefficient
is
Z Z
= L
ZL +Z
Reflected power
2
1 2 1
2
Re
+
P = V = V = P In
2Z
2Z

July,2003

I(0)
V(0)+ZL
0z

V+
VZL

2003byH.L.Berto

0z

46

SummaryofSpatialVariationforHarmonic
TimeDependence
Fieldvariationcanberepresentedbytwotravelingwaves
ortwostandingwaves
Themagnitudeofthefieldforapuretravelingwaveis
independentofz
Themagnitudeofthefieldforapurestandingwaveis
periodicinzwithperiod
Theperiodaveragepoweristhealgebraicsumofthe
powerscarriedbythetravelingwaves
Theperiodaveragepowerisindependentofznomatterif
thewaveisstandingortraveling
Thefractionoftheincidentpowercarriedbyareflected
waveis
July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

47

ImpedanceTransformations
inSpace
Impedancevariationinspace
Usingimpedanceformateriallayers
Frequencydependenceofreflectionfromabrick
wall
Quarterwavematchinglayer

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

48

DefiningImpedanceAlongaTL
At z =0 the ratio of voltage to currentI(0)
can have some value
V(0) I (0) ZL

ZINV(0)+ZL

Using the formulas V(z)

for andI (z)
we can compute their ratio
z=at
l.

l0z

Defining this ratio Z

as
IN (l) we have
V(l) V(0)cos(-kl) jZI (0)sin(kl)
ZIN (l)
=
I (l) I (0)cos(-kl) j 1 V(0)sin(-kl)
Z
Dividing numerator and denominator
I (0) by
and rearranging gives
ZL cos(kl) +jZsin(kl)
ZL +jZtan(kl)
ZIN (l) =Z
=Z
Zcos(kl) +jZL sin(kl)
Z+jZL tan(kl)

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

49

PropertiesoftheImpedanceTransform
The impedance formula
ZIN (l) =Z

ZL cos(kl) +jZsin(kl)
Z +jZtan(kl)
=Z L
Zcos(kl) +jZL sin(kl)
Z+jZL tan(kl)

shows that a length TL (or region of space) transforms an imp

to a different value.
Some properties of the transformation
:
1. For a matched load
ZL =Z, the imput impedace is matched
ZIN =Z
2. The impedance repeats
ZIN (l) =ZIN (l +l) for kl = or
l = k= 2
3. For quarter wave displacement
l = 4, kl = 2 and impedance
inverts
ZIN ( 4) =Z2 ZL
4. If ZL =0, then ZIN (l) =jZtan(kl)

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

50

UsingTransformforLayeredMedia
Incidentwave x
ExIn(z)ExTR(z)
Transmitted
HyIn(z)wave
0lz

ExRe(z)
Reflectedwave

v1,1v2,2v3,3
Z=2
ZIN(l)ZL=3

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

51

CircuitSolutionforReflectionCoefficient
Medium 3 acts as a load on the layer to the left.
- infinite
A semi
TL (medium)
at its terminals (accessible surface) acts as a resistor
ZL = 3so
. that
Impedance of the finite segment of
Z TL
= 2is
. Wavenumber of this
segment kis2 = v2 = r2oo =ko r2
whereko = oo is the wavenumber of free space.
Input impedance at left surface of the layer is then
3 cos(k2l) +j 2 sin(k2l)
2 cos(k2l) +j 3 sin(k2l)
Reflection coefficient for the wave incident from medium 1 is
ZIN (l) = 2

ZIN (l) 1 2(3 1) cos(k2l) +j( 2 13 )sin(k2l)

=
=
ZIN (l) +1 2 ( 3 +1) cos(k2l) +j( 22 +1 3)sin(k2l)

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

52

Example1:ReflectionataBrickWall
Medium 1 and medium 3 are air
1 = 3 = o
w
IN

Ex

IN
y

o
o

Medium 2 is brick with

r2 4
k2 =2ko and 2 =

o
=12 o
r2o

Reflection coefficient for the wave incident from air is

2(3 1)cos(k2w) +j(22 1 3)sin(k2w)
=
2( 3 +1)cos(k2w) +j(22 +13 )sin(k2w)
j (14 o2 2o ) sin(2kow)

j 43 sin(2kow)
= 2
=
2
1 2
2o cos(2kow) +j (4 o +o )sin(2kow) 2cos(2kow) +j 54 sin(2kow)

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

53

Example1:ReflectionataBrickWall,cont.
Let the wall thicknesswbe
=30 cm so that
2kow =
Re

Then p

4f
0.3=4fGHz
3108

9sin2(4fGHz)
p = =
64cos2(4fGHz) +25sin2(4fGHz)
in

00.250.500.751.01.251.501.752.0fGHz
Since there is no conductivity in the brick
thewall,
fraction of the incident
2

power transmitted through the 1

wall is

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

54

Example2:QuarterWaveLayers
Incidentwave x
ExIn(z)ExTR(z)
Transmitted
HyIn(z)wave
0z

ExRe(z)
Reflectedwave

v1,1v2,2v3,3
l=k2)=

cos(k2l) =cos(k2 2 4) =cos( /2) =0 and

sin
(k2l) =sin( /2) =1

so that ZIN (2 /4) = 22 /3

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

55

Example2:QuarterWaveLayers,cont.
2

For this value of
ZIN we have = 22 1 3
2 +1 3
If we choose the layer material such
22 =
that
1 3, then =0 and no
reflection takes place.

Suppose that medium 1 is air and medium 3 is glass with relativ

dielectric constant
g

o
For no reflection
: 22 = o =1 3 = o
r2o
o go
Note that the layer thickness
l =2is/4 =
or l =

o
4 g
4

July,2003

or r2 = g

v2
1
vo
=
=
4f 4 f r 2oo 4 f r 2

whereo is the wavelength in air.

2003byH.L.Berto

56

SummaryofImpedanceTransformation
Theimpedancerepeatseveryhalfwavelengthin
space,andisinvertedeveryquarterwavelength
Impedancescanbecascadedtofindtheimpedance
seenbyanincidentwave
Reflectionfromalayerhasperiodicfrequency
dependencewithminima(ormaxima)separated
byf=v2/(2w)
Quarterwavelayerscanbeusedimpedance
matchingtoeliminatereflections
July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

57

EffectofMaterialConductivity
Equivalentcircuitforaccountingforconductivity
Conductivityofsomecommondielectrics
Effectofconductivityonwavepropagation

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

58

G,C,LforParallelPlateLine
w
h
z

If the material between the plate conducts electricity,

there will be a
conductance
G mho/m in addition to the capacitance
C farads/m
and inductance
L henry/m.
The conductivity of a material is give by the parameter
mho/m
Expressions for the circuit quantities
:
are
w
G =
h

July,2003

w
C =
h

2003byH.L.Berto

h
L =
w

59

EquivalentCircuitforHarmonicWaves
+
I(z)V(z)

zz+zz

I(z)+

+I(z+z)
V(z) jLzjCzGV(z+z)
In the limit as
z 0 the Kirchhoff circuit equations for the phasor

voltage and current give the TL equations for harmonic time depe
dV(z)
=jL I (z)
dz

July,2003

dI (z)
=G
( +jC )V(z)
dz

2003byH.L.Berto

60

HarmonicFieldsandMaxwellsEquations
w
x

I(z)
z
y

Hy(z)

V(z)
Ex(z)

If w >>h, the fields between the plates are nearly constant over
- section,
the cross
so that the phasor circuit quantities
V(z) =
arehE x (z) and I (z) =wH y (z).

Substituting these exprsssions in the TL equations for harmonic time dep

along with the expressions
G, C,
forL gives Maxwell'
s equations
dE x(z)
=jH y (z)
dz

July,2003

dH y(z)
=( j + )E x (z)
dz

2003byH.L.Berto

61

MaxwellsEquationsWithMediumLoss

With minor manipulation,

Maxwell'
s equations for
- D1propagation of
harmonic waves in a medium with conduction loss can be w
dE x(z)
dH y (z)
=jH y (z)
and
=jE x (z)
dz
dz
The complex equivalent dielectric constant
is given by
=ro j =o (r j o)

Let "= o . Then =o(r j")

In other matierials atomic processes lead to a complex dielectri

formo (r j"). These processes have a different frequency

dependence ",
for but have the same effect on a hamonic wav

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

62

ConstantsforSomeCommonMaterials
Whenconductivityexists,usecomplexdielectricconstantgivenby
= o(r - j") where " = o and o 10-9/36
Material*
Lime stone wall
Dry marble
Brick wall
Cement
Concrete wall
Clear glass
Metalized glass
Lake water
Sea Water
Dry soil
Earth

r
7.5
8.8
4
4-6
6.5
4-6
5.0
81
81
2.5
7 - 30

mho/m) " at 1 GHz

0.03
0.54
0.22
0.02
0.36
0.3
0.08
1.2
0.005 - 0.1
2.5
45
0.013
0.23
3.3
59
--0.001 - 0.03
0.02 - 0.54

*Commonmaterialsarenotwelldefinedmixturesandoftencontainwater.

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

63

IncorporatingMaterialLossIntoWaves

Using the equivalent complex dielectric constant,

Maxwell'
s equations
have the same form as when no loss (conductivity) is pres

The solutions therefore have the same mathematical

form w
replaced by
.
For example,
the traveling wave solutions in a material are
+ jkz

E x(z) =V e

+jkz

+V e

and

1 + jkz
H y (z) = {V e V e+jkz}

Here k = = o(r j") and =

o(r j")

are complex quantities.

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

64

WaveNumberandImpedance
The complex wavenumber
k will have real and imaginary parts
k j = o(r j")
If " is less than about
r 10, we may use the approximations
or

and or

"
2r

"

Similarly,for " small, =

1+j
o(r j")
or
2r

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

65

EffectofLossonTravelingWaves
For a wave traveling in the positive
z direction
E x(z) =V +ejkz =V +expj(
j)z] =V +exp(-jz)exp(z)
[

The presence of loss (conductivity) results in a finite value of t

attenuation constant
. The attenuation (decay) length
1 . is
The magnitude of the field depends on z as given by
E x (z) =V + exp(z)
V+
V+e
z

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

66

AttenuationindB
For a traveling wave,
the attenuation in units of
- Bells
deci is found from
E x (z)
V + exp(z)
Attn=20log10
=20log10

+
E
(0
)
V
x

=20zlog10{e}=8.67z
Thus the attenuation rate of the wave in a medium
8.67 dB/m
is

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

67

EffectofLossonTravelingWaves,cont.

The instantaneous field of the wave has both sinusoidal variatio

wavelength
=2 and the decay over the attenuation
1 .length
For real amplitude
V +, the spatial variation is given by
jt

ReE x(z)e } =V Re{exp[ j(tz)]exp(z) }

{
or
V+

V +cos(t - z)exp(z)

V+e

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

68

LossDampsOutReflectioninMedia
Travelingwave
amplitude
Incidentwave

Reflecting
boundary

Reflectedwave
z
IN
x

E (z) =V exp(z)

July,2003

Re
x

E (z) =V + exp(+z)

2003byH.L.Berto

69

EffectofDampingonthe||foraWall

00.250.500.751.01.251.501.752.0fGHz
With absorption in the brick the
wall,interference minima are

reduced and the reflection coefficient approaches that of the

first air
- brick interfaceor
=

B o
=1 3
B +o

The fraction of the incident power transmitted through the

wall is 1

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

70

SummaryofMaterialLoss
ConductivityisrepresentedinMaxwellsequations
byacomplexequivalentdielectricconstant
Thewavenumberk=jandwaveimpedance
thenhaveimaginaryparts
Theattenuationlength=1/
Lossinamediumdampsoutreflectionswithina
medium

July,2003

2003byH.L.Berto

71