Anatomy of Eye

The sense of vision

Vision = Function of the eye + function of the brain

The majority of the stimuli is done in the eyes and then

the information is sent to the brain by the way of nerve
impulses.

At least one-third of the information of what the eye

sees is processed in the cerebral cortex of the brain.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
The principal structures of the eye are shown in figure
Periphery of the eye consists of three layers:
a. Outer fibrous layer (sclera and transparent cornea)
b. Middle layer comprising vascular choroid, muscular
ciliary body, and iris
c. Inner retinal layer, the neural tissue containing the
receptor cells

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Sclera is the outer protective layer of the eyeball and
modified anteriorly to form transparent cornea, through
which light rays enter the eyes.
The crystalline lens is a transparent structure held in
place by a circular lens ligament.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Iris: In front of the lens is the pigmented and opaque iris,
the colored portion of the eye. The iris contains circular
muscle fibres that constrict and radial fibres that dilate
the pupil.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
There are two chamber inside the sphere separated from
each other by the lens:
a. Anterior chamber i.e. the chamber between the lens
and cornea and is filled with clear liquid known as
aqueous humor.
b. Posterior chamber i.e. the chamber between the lens
and the retina and is filled with a clear gelatinous
material called the vitreous humor.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Aqueous humor is a clear liquid containing trace of
albumin and small amount of salt.
It is produced in ciliary body by diffusion and active
transport from plasma.
It flows through the pupil and fills the anterior chamber.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Functions of aqueous humor
l. Acts as a refractive media of the eye
2. It nourishes the avascular structures of the eyes e,g,.
Cornea, lens, and conjunctiva
3. It helps to maintain intraocular pressure

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
The retina is the complex outgrowth of the brain. It is
composed of:

Photoreceptors "the rods and cones" ,

Neural elements, and

Blood vessels

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
The retina is organized in ten layers:
1.

Pigmented epithelium. It absorbs light rays, preventing the

reflexion of rays back through the retina. Such reflexion would
produce blurring of the visual images.

2.

The rods and cones

3.

External limiting membrane

4.

Outer nuclear layer (nucleus of rods and cones)

5.

Outer plexiform layer

6.

Inner nuclear layer (midget, rod, and flat bipolar cells)

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
7.

Inner plexiform layer

8.

Ganglionic cell layer (diffuse and midget ganglionic cells)

9.

Optic nerve fibres (the axons of the ganglionic cells converge and
leave the eye as optic nerve)

10.

Inner limiting layer

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
There are four types of neurons present in the retina:
1.

Bipolar cells

2.

Ganglionic cells

3.

Horizontal cells, and

4.

Amacrine cells

As a part of the retina, the bipolar cell exists between

photoreceptors (rod cells and cone cells) and ganglion cells. They
act, directly or indirectly, to transmit signals from the
photoreceptors to the ganglion cells.
A retinal ganglion cell (RGC) is a type of neuron located near
the inner surface (the ganglion cell layer) of the retina of the eye.
It receives visual information from photoreceptors via two
intermediate neuron types: bipolar cells and retina amacrine
cells.

Horizontal cells connect receptor cell to the other

receptor cells in the outer plexiform layer.

Amacrine cells have no axons, and their processes

make both pre- and postsynaptic connections with
neighboring neural elements. Amacrine cells are the
only cells that secret acetylcholine in the retina. They
connect ganglionic cells to one another. It helps in the
processing the visual information in the retina

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Optic disc (the papilla)
It is a point about 3 mm and part of the posterior pole of
the glove through which optic nerve leave the retina
and retinal vessels enters the eye of the retina.
The normal optic disc has the following characteristic
features

Its normal color is pink or pale

There is a physiological central cupping

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Clear-cut disc margin with a reddish-brown surrounding retina.

Normal, visible, spontaneous pulsation of the retinal vein.

Clinical importance of optic disc:

Optic disc is examined by ophthalmoscope to diagnosed the following
clinical conditions:

Disc swelling (papilloedema)

Disc atrophy

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Papilloedema:
Papilloedema means swelling of the optic disc. The characteristic
findings in ophthalmoscopic examination of papilloedema are:

Swollen, and edematous disc

Redness of the disc (earliest sign of papilloedema)

Blurring of disc margins

Loss of physiological 'central cup

Loss of normal, visible, spontaneous pulsation of the retinal veins

Inflammation of retinal veins; haemorrhage may appear.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Causes of papilloedema

Increase intracranial pressure (intracranial mass lesion)

Brain oedema

Benign intracranial hypertension

Optic neuritis i.e. inflammatory disk swelling

Disc infiltration by tumor

Retinal venous obstruction.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Effect of papilloedema

Blurring of vision

Blindness in severe case (due to infraction of nerve)

No change in visual acuity unless macular area is affected

Blind spot:
At the center of the retina is the optic disc, sometimes known as "the
blind spot" because it lacks of photoreceptors.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
The Photoreceptors:
The photoreceptors are the class of serpentine receptor and are the
site of visual sensory transduction. There are two types of
photoreceptors the rods and cones".

General structure:

Shape: funnel

Each rod and cone is divided into an inner and an outer segment
and a synaptic zone.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Light-sensitive photopigment found in saccules and disks in outer

segment. These are two types:

Retinal (same for all photoreceptors)

Opsin ( varies among photoreceptors)

Inner segmentas are rich in mitochondria

Considerable development occurs during l st year of life

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Rod photoreceptors
The rods are named for the thin, rod-like appearance of their outer
segment.

120 million per eye

Only one kind; most sensitive to 500 nm (wavelength of light)

Approximately 10 times more sensitive than cones

Used in night / scotopic vision

Make synaptic contact with rod bipolar cells

Psychophysical and physiological data indicate that rods can

respond to a single photon

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Cone photoreceptors
Cones generally have thick inner segments and conical outer
segments.

8 million per eye

Three kinds,each most sensitive to 440, 530, o r 560 nm.

Basis of color vision

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Approximately 10 times less sensitive than rods

Used in day / photopic vision

Make synaptic contact with flat bipolar cells

Cones release glutamate

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Distribution of rods & cones

Rods are most dense in periphery

No rods in the center of the macula

Cones are most dense in fovea

No receptors in blind spot

Asymmetric distribution in most eyes

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
The photoreceptor mechanism
Light absorbed by photosensitive substances of rods and cones
------ change their structure --- initiate neural activity -----

The responses of the rods, cones, and horizontal cells to light are
hyperpolarization, and

The responses of the bipolar cells are either hyperpolarizing or

depolarizing.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
How Rod and Cone cells respond to light?

Na* channels in the outer segments of the rods and cones are open
in the dark and release of synaptic transmitter is steady in the dark.

When light strikes the outer segment, some of the Na+ channels
close, and the result is a hyperpolarizing receptor potential, which
reduces the release of synaptic transmitter.

Thus way generates action potential in ganglionic cells. This action

potentials are transmitted to the brain.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Photopigment

Light is detected by its reaction with the photosensitive compounds in

the eyes known as photopigment. Photopigments are located in
the outer segments of the rods and cones.
The photopigments are made up of:

protein called an opsin, and

A retinol (i.e. retinene1): the aldehyde of vitamin A.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
There are four forms of opsin giving four photopigments:

Rod photopigment - 'rhodopsin

Cone photopigments:

Erythrolabe (red sensitive)

Chlorolabe (green sensitive)

Cyanolabe (blue sensitive)

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Rhodopsin
The photosensitive pigment in the rods is called rhodopsin or visual
purple.

Its opsin is called scotopsin.

Rhodopsin has a peak sensitivity to light at a wavelength of 505

nm.

Human rhodopsin has a molecular weight of 41,000.

It is found in the membranes of the rod disks.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Cone pigments

There are three different types of cones in primates. Cones pigments

sub serve color vision and respond maximally to light at
wavelengths of 440,535, and 565 nm. Each contains retinine 1 and
an opsin.

Red sensitive cones

Contains red sensitive pigment "eryrthrolabe

tong wave pigment (565 nm)

Absorbs red portion of the spectrum

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Green sensitive cones

Contains green sensitive pigment "chlorolabe

Medium wave pigment( 535 nm)

Absorbs green portion of the spectrum

Blue sensitive cones

Contains blue sensitive pigment "cyanolabe

Short wave pigment (440 nm)

Absorbs blue portion of the spectrum.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
The image forming mechanism
The images of objects in the environment are focused on
the retina. The light rays striking the retina generate
potentials in the rods and cones. Impulses initiated in
the retina are conducted to the cerebral cortex, where
they produce the sensation of vision.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

In a sense, the processing of visual information in the

retina involves the formation of three images:

The first image, is formed by the action of light on the

photoreceptors.

The second image, is formed in the bipolar cells (the first image
signal is altered by the horizontal cells)

The third image, is formed in ganglion cell (the second image

signal is altered by the amacrine cell)

The third image reaches the occipital cortex (visual center).

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Principal of optics

Refraction: The change of direction of light rays when they pass

from one medium into a medium of a different density is called
refraction.

The refractive media of the eye include:

1. Cornea
2. Aqueous humor
3. Lens (biconvex), and
4. Vitreous humor

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Refractive index: The ratio of speed of light in air to its speed in

another substances is called refractive index.

The refractive index of different media is as follows:
Air
----------1.00
Water
----------1.33
Crystalline lens ----------1.413

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Common defects of the image forming mechanism
(Refractive errors):
Conditions in which parallel rays of light are not brought to a focus
upon the retina because of the defect in shape of the eye ball are
called refractive error.
Common refractive errors are:
Hyperopia or hypermetropia
Myopia
Astigmatism
Presbiopia

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Emmetropia means normal eye

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Hypermetropia (farsightedness):

Eyeball is shorter than normal

Parallel rays of light are brought to a focus behind the retina

Patient cannot see near object

Other

features:

headache,

(strabismus) in prolonged case.

blurring

of

vision,

and

squint

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Causes of hypermetropia include:

1. Decrease anteroposterior diameter of the eyeball

2. Decrease focusing power of the lens

Correction
Corrected by using convex (converging) lenses, which aid the
refractive power of the eye in shortening the focal distance.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Myopia (nearsightedness):

Eyeball is longer than normal

Parallel rays of light are brought to a focus in front of the retina

Patient cannot see distant object

Causes or myopia include:

Increase anteroposterior diameter of the eyeball

Excessive close work

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:
Correction:
Corrected by using biconcave (diverging) lenses, which make the
parallel light rays diverge slightly before they strike the eye.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Astigmatism:

Astigmatism is a condition in which the curvature of the cornea or lens

is not uniform. Thus light rays in that meridian are refracted in to a
different focus, so that part of the retinal image is blurred.
Astigmatism is corrected by using cylindrical lenses (equalize the
refraction in all meridian).

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Presbiopia:

Defect of vision in advancing age involving loss of accommodation or

recession of near point of vision due to loss of elasticity of
crystalline lens (i.e. hardening of lens). This condition is called
presbiopia. Presbiopia is corrected by using glasses with convex
lenses.

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye:

Anatomy and Physiology of the

Eye: