Chemistry 1033

Book: Chemistry: An Introduction to General,

Organic, and Biological Chemistry. Twelfth edition
Author: K.C. Timberlake

What Is Chemistry?
Chemistry
is the study of composition,
structure, properties, and
reactions of matter
happens all around you
every day
Antacid tablets undergo a chemical
reaction when dropped in water.

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chemicals
Chemicals are
substances that have the
same composition and
properties wherever found
often substances made by
chemists that you use
every day
Toothpaste is a combination
of many chemicals.

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chemicals Commonly Used in Toothpaste

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chemicals Used When Cooking

Many substances found in the kitchen are obtained using chemical

reactions.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition
2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chemicals against
Naturals
Staphilococcus aureus

Poison from snakes

Study Check
Which of the following contains chemicals?
A. sunlight
B. fruit
C. milk
D. breakfast cereal

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Solution
Which of the following contains chemicals?
A. Sunlight is energy given off by the Sun and therefore does
not contain chemicals.
B. Fruit contains chemicals that have the same composition
and properties wherever found.
C. Milk contains chemicals that have the same composition
and properties wherever found.
D. Breakfast cereal contains chemicals that have the same
composition and properties wherever found.
Therefore, only B. Fruit, C. Milk, and D. Breakfast cereal
contain chemicals.

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

2.1 Units of Measurement

The metric system is the standard system of measurement
used in chemistry.

Learning Goal Write the names and abbreviations for the metric or SI
units used in measurements of length, volume, mass, temperature, and time.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Units of Measurement
Scientists use the metric system of measurement and have
adopted a modification of the metric system called the
International System of Units as a worldwide standard.
The International System of Units (SI) is an official
system of measurement used throughout the world for
units of length, volume, mass, temperature, and time.

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Units of Measurement, Metric and SI

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Length: Meter (m) and Centimeter (cm)

1 m = 100 cm 1 m = 1.09 yd
1 m = 39.4 in. 2.54 cm = 1 in.

Volume: Liter (L) and Milliliter (mL)

1L
= 1000 mL
1L
= 1.06 qt
946 mL = 1 qt

Graduated cylinders are used to

measure small volumes.

Mass: Gram (g) and Kilogram (kg)

1 kg = 1000 g
1 kg = 2.20 lb
454 g = 1 lb
The mass of a nickel
is 5.01 g on an
electronic scale.

Temperature: Celsius (C) and Kelvin (K)

Water freezes:
32 F
0F
The Kelvin scale for temperature
begins at the lowest possible
temperature, 0 K.
A thermometer is used to measure
temperature.

Time: Second (s)

The second (s) is the correct metric
and SI unit for time.
The standard measure for 1 s is an
atomic clock.

A stopwatch is used to measure the

time of a race.

Study Check

Identify the SI units for each of the following:

A. volume
B. mass
C. length
D. temperature

Solution
Identify the SI units for each of the following:
A. The SI unit for volume is the
cubic meter, m3.
B. The SI unit for mass is the
kilogram, kg.
C. The SI unit for length is the
meter, m.
D. The SI unit for temperature is the kelvin, K.

Study
Sample problem, page 27
Questions and problems, page 27

2.2 Measured Numbers and

Significant Figures

Lengthismeasuredbyobservingthemarkedlinesatthe
endofaruler.Thelastdigitinyourmeasurementisanestimate,
obtainedbyvisuallydividingthespacebetweenthemarkedlines.

Learning Goal Identify a number as measured or exact;

determine the number of significant figures in a measured
number.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Measured Numbers
Measured numbers are the numbers obtained when you
measure a quantity such as your height, weight, or
temperature.
To write a measured number,
observe the numerical values of marked lines
estimate value of the numbers between marks
use the estimated number as the final number in your
measured number

Writing Measured Numbers for Length

The lengths of the objects are
measured as
(a) 4.5 cm
(b) 4.55 cm
(c) 3.0 cm

Significant Figures
In a measured number, the significant
figures (SFs) are all the digits including the
estimated digit.
Significant figures are
used to represent the amount of error
associated with a measurement
all nonzero digits and zeros between digits
not zeros that act as placeholders before
digits
zeros at the end of a decimal number
Core Chemistry Skill Counting Significant Figures

Significant Figures in Measured Numbers

A number is a significant figure (SF) if it is or has the following:

Scientific Notation and Significant Zeros

When one or more zeros in a large number are
significant, they are shown clearly by writing the
number in scientific notation.
In this book, we place a decimal point after a
significant zero at the end of a number.
For example, if only the first zero in the
measurement 300 m is significant, the
measurement is written as 3.0 102 m.

Scientific Notation and Significant Zeros

Zeros at the end of large standard numbers without a
decimal point are not significant.
400 000 g is written with one SF as 4 10 5 g
850 000 m is written with two SF as 8.5 10 5 m
Zeros at the beginning of a decimal number are used as
placeholders and are not significant.
0.000 4 s is written with one SF as 4 10 4 s
0.000 0046 g is written with two SF as 4.6 10 6 g

Study Check
Identify the significant and nonsignificant zeros in each of the
following numbers, and write each number in the correct
scientific notation.
A. 0.002 650 m
B. 43.026 g
C. 1 044 000 L

Solution
Identify the significant and nonsignificant zeros in
each of the following numbers, and write each
number in the correct scientific notation.
A. 0.002 650 m is written as 2.650 103 m four
SF
The zeros preceding the 2 are not significant.
The digits 2, 6, and 5 are significant.
The zero in the last decimal place is significant.
B. 43.026 g is written as 4.3026 101 g
five SF
The zeros between nonzero digits or at the
end of decimal numbers are significant.

Solution
Identify the significant and nonsignificant zeros in
each of the following numbers, and write each
number in the correct scientific notation.
C. 1 044 000 L is written as 1.044 106 L
four
SF
The zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
The zeros at end of a number with no decimal
are not significant.

Study
Sample Problem 2.2 and Study Check,
page 29
Questions and Problems, page 30

Exact Numbers
Exact numbers are
not measured and do not have a limited number of significant
figures
do not affect the number of significant figures in a calculated
answer
numbers obtained by counting
8 cookies
in definitions that compare two units 6 eggs
in the same measuring system
1 qt = 4 cups
1 kg = 1 000 g

Exact Numbers
Examples of exact numbers include the following:

2.3 Significant Figures in Calculations

A calculator is
helpful in
working
problems and
doing
calculations
faster.

Learning Goal Adjust calculated answers to give the correct

number of significant figures.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Rules for Rounding Off

1. If the first digit to be dropped is 4 or less, then it and all the

following digits are dropped from the number.
2. If the first digit to be dropped is 5 or greater, then the last
retained digit of the number is increased by 1.

Core Chemistry Skill Rounding Off

Examples of Rounding

Study Check
Write the correct value when 3.1457 g is rounded to each of the
following:
A. three significant figures
B. two significant figures

Solution
Write the correct value when 3.1457 g is rounded to
each of the following:
A. To round 3.1457 to three significant figures,
drop the final digits, 57
increase the last remaining digit by 1
The answer is 3.15 g.
B. To round 3.1457 g to two significant figures,
drop the final digits, 457
do not increase the last number by 1 since the
first of these digits is 4
The answer is 3.1 g.

Study
Sample Problem 2.3 and Study Check
2.3, page 31

Multiplication and Division,

Measured Numbers
In multiplication or division, the final answer is written so that
it has the same number of significant figures (SFs) as the
measurement with the fewest significant figures.
Example 1 Multiply the following measured numbers:
24.66 cm 0.35 cm
= 8.631 (calculator display)
= 8.6 cm2 (two significant figures)
Multiplying four SFs by two SFs gives us an answer with two SFs.

Core Chemistry Skill Using Significant Figures in Calculations

Multiplication and Division with SFs

Example 2 Multiply and divide the following measured numbers:

Multiplying three SFs by two SFs gives us an answer with two SFs.

Adding Significant Zeros

Adding Zeros: When the calculator display contains fewer SFs
than needed, add one or more significant zeros to obtain the
correct number of significant figures.
Example 1 Multiply and divide the following measured
numbers:

Study Check
Perform the following calculation of measured numbers. Give
the answer in the correct number of significant figures.

Solution
Perform the following calculation of measured numbers. Give
the answer in the correct number of significant figures.

Addition and Subtraction with SFs

In addition or subtraction, the final answer is written so that it has the same
number of decimal places as the measurement with the fewest decimal places.
Example 1 Add the following measured numbers:
2.012 Thousandths place
61.09 Hundredths place
+ 3.0
Tenths place
66.102 Calculator display
66.1
Answer, rounded to the tenths place

Addition and Subtraction with SFs

Example 2 Subtract the following measured numbers:
65.09 Hundredths place
3.0
Tenths place
62.09 Calculator display
62.1
Answer, rounded to the tenths place

Study Check
Add the following measured numbers:
82.409 mg
+ 22.0 mg

Solution
Add the following measured numbers:
82.409 mg
Thousandths place
+ 22.0 mg Tenths place
104.409 mg Calculator display
104.4 mg Answer, rounded to the tenths place

Study
Questions and Problems, page 33

International System
Some typical laboratory test values

Substance in Blood
Albumin
Ammonia
Calcium
Cholesterol
Iron (males)
Protein (total)

Typical Range
3.5-5.0 g/dL
20-150 mcg/dL
8.5-10.5 mg/dL
105-250 mg/dL
80-160 mcg/dL
6.0-8.0 g/dL

Prefixes
A special feature of the SI as well as the metric system is that a
prefix can be placed in front of any unit to increase or decrease its
size by some factor of ten.
For example, the prefixes milli and micro are used to make the
smaller units:
milligram (mg)
microgram
(g or mcg)
Core Chemistry Skill Using Prefixes
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Metric and SI Prefixes

Prefixes That Increase the Size of the Unit

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Metric and SI Prefixes

Prefixes That Decrease the Size of the Unit

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Prefixes and Equalities

The relationship of a prefix to a unit can be
expressed by replacing the prefix with its
numerical value.
For example, when the prefix kilo in kilometer is
replaced
with its value of 1000, we find that a kilometer is
equal to
1000 meters.
kilometer = 1000 meters
kiloliter = 1000 liters
kilogram = 1000 grams

Daily Values for Selected Nutrients

TheU.S.FoodandDrugAdministrationusesmetricprefixesto
expressamountsofdailynutrientrequirements.

Study Check
Fill in the blanks with the correct prefix.
A. 1000 m = 1 ___m
B. 1 103 g = 1 ___g
C. 0.01 m = 1 ___m

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Solution
Fill in the blanks with the correct prefix.
A. 1000 m = 1 ___m
The prefix for 1000 is kilo; 1000 m = 1 km.
B. 1 103 g = 1 ___g
The prefix for 1 103 is milli; 1 103 g = 1 mg.
C. 0.01 m = 1 ___m
The prefix for 0.01 is centi; 0.01 m = 1 cm.

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Measuring Length
Ophthalmologists measure the diameter of the eyes retina
in centimeters (cm), while a surgeon measures the length of
a nerve in millimeters (mm).
Each of the following equalities describes the same length
in a different unit:
1 m = 100 cm = 1 102 cm
1 m = 1000 mm = 1 103 mm
1 cm = 10 mm = 1 101 mm

Measuring Length

The metric length of 1 m is the same as 10 dm, 100 cm,

or 1000 mm.

Measuring Volume
Volumes of 1 L or smaller are common in the health sciences.
When a liter is divided into 10 equal portions, each portion is
called a deciliter (dL).
The following are examples of some volume equalities:
1 L = 10 dL = 1 101 dL
1L
= 1000 mL
= 1 103 mL
1 dL = 100 mL = 1 102 mL

The Cubic Centimeter

The cubic centimeter (abbreviated as cm3 or cc) is the
volume of a cube whose dimensions are 1 cm on each side.
A cubic centimeter has the same volume as a milliliter, and
the units are often used interchangeably.
1 cm3 = 1 cc = 1 mL

The Cubic Centimeter

1 cm3 = 1 cc = 1 mL
10 cm 10 cm 10 cm = 1000 cm3 = 1000 mL = 1 L

Measuring Mass
When you visit the doctor for a physical examination, he or she
records your mass in kilograms (kg) and laboratory results in
micrograms (g or mcg).
The following are examples of equalities between different
metric units of mass:
1 kg = 1000 g
= 1 103 g
1g
= 1000 mg
= 1 103 mg
1 g = 100 cg
= 1 102 cg
1 mg = 1000 g, 1000 mcg = 1 103 g

Study Check
Identify the larger unit in each of the following:
A. mm or cm
B. kilogram or centigram
C. mL or L
D. kL or mcL

Solution
Identify the larger unit in each of the following:
A. mm or cm
A millimeter is 0.001 m, smaller than a centimeter, 0.01 m.
B. kilogram or centigram
A kilogram is 1000 g, larger than a centigram, 0.01 g.
C. mL or L
A milliliter is 0.001 L, larger than a microliter, 0.000 001 L.
D. kL or mcL
A kiloliter is 1000 L, larger than a microliter, 0.000 001 L.

Study
Questions and Problems, page 37

2.5 Writing Conversion Factors

IntheUnited
States,thecontents
ofmanypackaged
foodsarelistedin
bothU.S.and
metricunits.
Learning Goal Write a conversion factor for two units that
describe the same quantity.

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Equalities
Equalities
use two different units to describe the same measured amount
are written for relationships between units of the metric
system, U.S. units, or between metric and U.S. units
For example,
1m
= 1000 mm
1 lb
=
16 oz
2.20 lb = 1 kg
Core Chemistry Skill Writing Conversion Factors from
Equalities
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Equalities: Conversion Factors

Any equality can be written as fractions called conversion
factors.
Conversion Factors for the Equality 60 min = 1 h

Conversion Factors for the Metric Equality 1 m = 100 cm

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Equalities: Conversion Factors and SF

The numbers in
any equality between two metric units or
between two U.S. system units are obtained by
definition and are therefore exact numbers
a definition are exact and are not used to
determine significant figures
an equality between metric and U.S. units
contain one number obtained by measurement
and count toward the significant figures
Exception: The equality 1 in. = 2.54 cm has been
defined as an exact relationship, and therefore
2.54 is an exact number.
Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Some Common Equalities

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Conversion Factors
We can write
metric conversion factors:

metricU.S. system conversion factors:

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Study Check
Write conversion factors from the equality for each of
the following:
A. liters and milliliters
B. meters to inches
C. meters and kilometers

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Solution
Write conversion factors from the equality for each of
the following:
A.
B.
C.

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Conversion Factors in a Problem

A conversion factor
may be stated within a problem that applies
only to
that problem
is written for that problem only
Example: The car was traveling at 85 km/h.

Example: One tablet contains 500 mg of vitamin

C.

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Conversion Factors: Dosage Problems

Equalities stated within dosage problems for medications can
also be written as conversion factors.
Example: Keflex (Cephalexin), an antibiotic used for
respiratory and ear infections, is available in 250-mg capsules.

The 250 mg is measured: It has two significant figures. The 1 in

1 capsule is an exact number.

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Conversion Factors: Percentages

A percent factor gives the ratio of the parts to the
whole and
uses the same unit in the numerator and
denominator
uses the value of 100 and can be written as two
factors
Example: A person might have 18% body fat by
mass. The thickness of the skin fold at the
abdomen is used to determine the percentage of
body fat.

Study Check
Write the equality and its corresponding
conversion factors, and identify each number as
exact or give its significant figures for the
following statement: Salmon contains
1.9% omega-3 fatty acids.

Solution
Write the equality and its corresponding
conversion factors, and identify each number as
exact or give its significant figures for the
following statement: Salmon contains
1.9% omega-3 fatty acids.

Study Check
Write the equality and conversion factors for each of
the following:
A. meters and centimeters
B. jewelry that contains 18% gold
C. One gallon of gas is $3.40.

Solution
Write the equality and conversion factors for each of
the following:
A. meters and centimeters

B. jewelry that contains 18% gold

C. One gallon of gas is $3.40.

2.7 Density
Objectsthatsinkin
wateraremore
densethanwater;
objectsthatfloat
arelessdense.

LearningGoalCalculatethedensityofasubstance;usethe
densitytocalculatethemassorvolumeofasubstance.

Densities of Common Substances

Inserttable2.9page46

Density
Density compares the mass of an object to its volume.

Volume by Displacement
A solid
completely submerged
in water displaces its
own volume of water
has a volume
calculated from the
volume difference
45.0 mL 35.5 mL
= 9.5 mL
=
9.5 cm3

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Density Using Volume Displacement

The density of the zinc object is
calculated from its mass
and volume.

Chemistry: An Introduction to General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry, Twelfth Edition

2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Study Check
What is the density (g/cm3) of a 48.0-g sample of a
metal if the level of water in a graduated cylinder
rises from 25.0 mL to
33.0 mL after the metal is added?

25.0 mL

33.0 mL
object

Solution
What is the density (g/cm3) of a 48.0-g sample of a metal if the
level of water in a graduated cylinder rises from 25.0 mL to
33.0 mL after the metal is added?

Problem Solving Using Density

If the volume and the density of a sample are known, the mass in
grams of the sample can be calculated by using density as a
conversion factor.

Core Chemistry Skill Using Density as a Conversion Factor

Problem Solving Using Density

Example: John took 2.0 teaspoons (tsp) of cough
syrup for a cough. If the syrup had a density of 1.20
g/mL and there is 5.0 mL in 1 tsp, what was the mass, in
grams, of the cough syrup?
STEP
1 State
the
given
and needed quantities.
ANALYZE
GIVEN
NEED
ANALYZE GIVEN NEED
THEPROBLEM2.0tspsyrup
gramsofsyrup
densitysyrup1.20g/mL

STEP 2 Write a plan to calculate the needed

quantity.
teaspoons U.S.Metric
milliliters
Factor

Density
grams
Factor

Problem Solving Using Density

Example: John took 2.0 teaspoons (tsp) of cough
syrup for a cough. If the syrup had a density of 1.20
g/mL and there is 5.0 mL in 1 tsp, what was the
mass, in grams, of the cough syrup?
STEP 3 Write the equalities and conversion
factors.

STEP 4 Set up the problem to calculate the

needed
quantity.

Study
Chemistry link to health. Bone density.
Page 47