Supplementary Material

Emission Computed
Tomography
Thanks to those that post
interesting material on the
internet. This supplement is a
collection from several.

Emission Tomography
ion
t
c
je
pro

f(x,y,z)

f(x,y,z)
Reconstructi
on

Projections

Slices

SPECT
Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography
only one gamma photon
is detected per decay

collimator
NaI(Tl) crystal

Rotating scintillator
camera

PET
Positron Emission Tomography

What do we want to detect in PET?

2 photons of 511 keV in coincidence, coming in a
straight line from the same annihilation
detector

TRUE
coincidence

ee+

unstable nucleus

emits positron

positron annihilates
with electron

detector

two 511 photons

are emitted
simultaneously in
opposite directions

Types of Coincidence
True coincidence is the simultaneous detection of the
two emissions resulting from a single decay event.
Scatter coincidence is when one or both photons from
a single event are scattered and both are detected.
Random coincidence is the simultaneous detection of
emission from more than one decay event.

Coincidences: True

Scatter

Random

PET radiation detection

PET scanner
Typical configuration:

whole-body (patient port ~60 cm; axial FOV~15 cm)

scintillator crystals coupled to photomultiplier tubes (PMTs)
cylindrical geometry
~24-32 rings of detector crystals
hundreds of crystals/ring
several millions of Lines Of Response (LORs)
(only a few are shown)

PET CT

Other configurations for

special-purpose applications:
- brain imaging
- animal PET
- mammography, other

True

True

PET/CT

CT

PET

General Electric Medical Systems

CT+PET

PET data acquisition

Organization of data
True counts in LORs are accumulated
In some cases, groups of nearby LORs are
grouped into one average LOR (mashing)
LORs are organized into projections

etc

PET data acquisition

2D and 3D acquisition modes
2D mode

3D mode

(= with septa)

(= no septa)

septa

In the 3D mode there are no septa:

photons from a larger number of
incident angles are accepted,
increasing the sensitivity.

Note that despite the name, the 2D

mode provides three-dimensional
reconstructed images (a collection
of transaxial, sagittal and
transaxial slices), just like the 3D
mode!

PET data acquisition

2D mode vs. 3D mode
2D mode

3D mode

(= with septa)

(= no septa)

True

True

not detected
(septa block
photons)

detected

PET data acquisition

Organization of data
In 3D, there are extra LORs relative to 2D

...

+
...

3D mode

same planes as 2D

oblique planes

PET evolution: spatial resolution

Human brain

Monkey brain

Animal PET
~1998
Image credits:
CTI PET Systems

Image credits:
Crump Institute, UCLA

Part of the goal is to bring order to this alphabet soup.

J. Fessler, 2002

PET image reconstruction

P(1 ,r)

Projection

P(

,r)
2

Radon Transform
r

P ( , r )

line ( , r )

f(x,y)

2
1

Object

f ( x, y )dl

PET image reconstruction

Sinogram

Object

Projection
angle

Projection bin

PET image reconstruction

Sinogram

Object

PET image reconstruction

Sinogram

Object

PET image reconstruction

Sinogram

Object

PET image reconstruction

Sinogram

Object

PET image reconstruction

Sinogram

Object

Sinogram

PET: 180
(2 opposite photons)

SPECT: 360 (1 photon)

Other representations can be used instead of the sinogram (linogram, planogram)

PET image reconstruction

2D Reconstructi

2D Reconstruction
Each parallel slice is reconstructed independently
(a 2D sinogram originates a 2D slice)
Slices are stacked to form a 3D volume

f(x,y,z)

etc
Slice 5
Slice 4
Slice 3
Slice 2
Slice 1

etc
Plane 5
Plane 4
Plane 3
Plane 2
Plane 1

2D reconstruction
2D reconstruction
2D reconstruction
2D reconstruction
2D reconstruction

PET image reconstruction

2D Reconstructi

Projection and Backprojection

Projection

Backprojection

PET image reconstruction

2D Reconstructi

4 projections
Object

Backprojection

Filtered
Backprojection

16 projections

128 projections

Noise In PET Images

Noise in PET images is dominated by the counting
statistics of the coincidence events detected.
Noise can be reduced at the cost of image resolution
by using an apodizing window on ramp filter in image
reconstruction (FBP algorithm).
105

106

107

counts

Unapodized ramp filter

Hanning window, 4mm

Hanning window, 8mm

PET image reconstruction

Data corrections are necessary
the measured projections are not the same as the
projections assumed during image reconstruction
integral of the activity
along the line or tube
of response
Scattered
coincidences
component

assumed
projection

Random
coincidences
component

Object
(uniform
cylinder)

Attenuation

Detector
efficiency
effects

True
coincidences
component

measured
projection

Analytical methods
Advantages
Fast
Simple
Predictable, linear behaviour

Disadvantages
Not very flexible
Image formation process is not modelled image
properties are sub-optimal (noise, resolution)

Iterative methods
Advantages
Can accurately model the image formation process (use
with non-standard geometries, e.g. not all angles
measured, gaps)
Allow use of constraints and a priori information (nonnegativity, boundaries)
Corrections can be included in the reconstruction process
(attenuation, scatter, etc)

Disadvantages
Slow
Less predictive behaviour (noise? convergence?)

PET Image reconstruction

Iterative methods
image space

projection space

projection

Estimated
projection
Measured
projection

Current
estimate
Update

Error
image

backprojection

Iteration 1

Error
projection

Compare
(e.g. or / )

PET Image reconstruction

Iterative methods
image space

projection space

projection

Current
estimate

Estimated
Estimated
projection
projection

Measured
projection

Update

Error
image

backprojection

Iteration 2

Error
projection

Compare
(e.g. - or / )

PET Image reconstruction

Iterative methods
image space

projection space

projection

Current
estimate

Estimated
Estimated
Estimated
projection
projection
projection

Measured
projection

Update

Error
image

backprojection

Iteration N

Error
projection

Compare
(e.g. - or / )

Algorithm comparison

600 000 counts (including scatter)

original

3DRP

Hanning

FORE +
OSEM

6 subsets
2 iter.

3D
OSEM

6 subsets
2 iter.
6 subsets
5 iter.
Gauss .5cm

3D OSEM + filt.
Image credits:
Kris Thielemans
MRC CU, London (now IRSL www.irsl.org)

Reconstruction of a slice from projections

example = myocardial perfusion, left ventricle, long axis

courtesy of Dr. K. Kouris

Iterative reconstruction methods

conventional iterative algebraic methods
algebraic reconstruction technique (ART)
simultaneous iterative reconstruction technique (SIRT)
iterative least-squares technique (ILST)
iterative statistical reconstruction methods
(with and without using a priori information)
gradient and conjugate gradient (CG) algorithms
maximum likelihood expectation maximization (MLEM)
ordered-subsets expectation maximization (OSEM)
maximum a posteriori (MAP) algorithms

algorithm (a recipe)
(1) make the first arbitrary estimate of the slice (homogeneous image),
(2) project the estimated slice into projections analogous to those
measured by the camera (important: in this step, physical corrections
can be introduced - for attenuation, scatter, and depth-dependent
collimator resolution),
(3) compare the projections of the estimate with measured projections
(subtract or divide the corresponding projections in order to obtain
correction factors - in the form of differences or quotients),
(4) stop or continue: if the correction factors are approaching zero, if
they do not change in subsequent iterations, or if the maximum number
of iterations was achieved, then finish; otherwise
(5) apply corrections to the estimate (add the differences to individual
pixels or multiply pixel values by correction quotients) - thus make the
new estimate of the slice,
(6) go to step (2).

Iterative reconstruction - multiplicative corrections

Iterative reconstruction - differences between individual

iterations

Iterative reconstruction - multiplicative corrections

Filtered back-projection
very fast
direct inversion of the
projection formula

corrections for scatter,

non-uniform attenuation
and other physical
factors are difficult
it needs a lot of filtering
- trade-off between
blurring and noise
quantitative imaging
difficult

Iterative reconstruction

discreteness of data included

in the model
it is easy to model and handle
projection noise, especially
when the counts are low
it is easy to model the imaging
physics such as geometry,
non-uniform attenuation,
scatter, etc.
quantitative imaging possible

amplification of noise
long calculation time

References:
Groch MW, Erwin WD. SPECT in the year 2000: basic principles.
J Nucl Med Techol 2000; 28:233-244, http://www.snm.org.
Groch MW, Erwin WD. Single-photon emission computed tomography
in the year 2001: instrumentation and quality control.
J Nucl Med Technol 2001; 20:9-15, http://www.snm.org.
Bruyant PP. Analytic and iterative reconstruction algorithms in SPECT.
J Nucl Med 2002; 43:1343-1358, http://www.snm.org.
Zeng GL. Image reconstruction - a tutorial.
Computerized Med Imaging and Graphics 2001; 25(2):97-103,
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/compmedimag.
Vandenberghe S et al. Iterative reconstruction algorithms in nuclear
medicine. Computerized Med Imaging and Graphics 2001; 25(2):105-111,
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/compmedimag.

References:
Patterson HE, Hutton BF (eds.). Distance Assisted Training Programme
for Nuclear Medicine Technologists. IAEA, Vienna, 2003,
http://www.iaea.org.
Busemann-Sokole E. IAEA Quality Control Atlas for Scintillation Camera
Systems. IAEA, Vienna, 2003, ISBN 92-0-101303-5,
http://www.iaea.org/worldatom/books, http://www.iaea.org/Publications.
Steves AM. Review of nuclear medicine technology. Society of Nuclear
Medicine Inc., Reston, 1996, ISBN 0-032004-45-8, http://www.snm.org.
Steves AM. Preparation for examinations in nuclear medicine
technology. Society of Nuclear Medicine Inc., Reston, 1997,
ISBN 0-932004-49-0, http://www.snm.org.
Graham LS (ed.). Nuclear medicine self study program II:
Instrumentation. Society of Nuclear Medicine Inc., Reston, 1996,
ISBN 0-932004-44-X, http://www.snm.org.
Saha GB. Physics and radiobiology of nuclear medicine. SpringerVerlag, New York, 1993, ISBN 3-540-94036-7.