DIGITAL

MODULATION
TECHNIQUES

WHAT IS DIGITAL
COMMUNICATION?
Digital communications broadly refers to the
transmission of information using digital
messages or bit streams.
There are notable advantages to transmitting
data using discrete messages.
Errors caused by noise and interference can be
detected and corrected systematically.
Digital communications also make the
networking of heterogeneous systems
possible, with the Internet
being the most obvious such example.

DIGITAL
COMMUNICATION

DIGITAL COMMNICATION
Information Source and Input Transducer:
The source of information can be analog or digital, e.g. analog:
audio or video signal, digital: like teletype signal. In digital
communication the signal produced by this source is converted into
digital signal consists of 1s and 0s. For this we need source encoder.
Source Encoder
In digital communication we convert the signal from source
into digital signal as mentioned above. The point to remember is we
should like to use as few binary digits as possible to represent the
signal. In such a way this efficient representation of the source output
results in little or no redundancy. This sequence of binary digits is
called information sequence.
Source Encoding or Data Compression: the process of efficiently
converting the output of wither analog or digital source into a
sequence of binary digits is known as source encoding.

DIGITAL COMMNICATION
Channel Encoder:
The information sequence is passed through the channel encoder. The
purpose of the channel encoder is to introduced, in controlled
manner, some redundancy in the binary information sequence
that can be used at the receiver to overcome the effects of
noise and interference encountered in the transmission on the
signal through the channel.
e.g. take k bits of the information sequence and map that k bits to
unique n bit sequence called code word. The amount of redundancy
introduced is measured by the ratio n/k and the reciprocal of this ratio
(k/n) is known as rate of code or code rate.
Digital Modulator:
The binary sequence is passed to digital modulator which in
turns convert the sequence into electric signals so that we can
transmit them on channel (we will see channel later). The digital
modulator maps the binary sequences into signal wave forms , for
example if we represent 1 by sin x and 0 by cos x then we will transmit
sin x for 1 and cos x for 0. ( a case similar to BPSK)

DIGITAL COMMNICATION
Channel:
The communication channel is the physical medium that is used for
transmitting signals from transmitter to receiver. In wireless system,
this channel consists of atmosphere , for traditional telephony, this
channel is wired , there are optical channels, under water acoustic
cahnenls etc.
Digital Demodulator:
The digital demodulator processes the channel corrupted transmitted
waveform and reduces the waveform to the sequence of numbers that
represents estimates of the transmitted data symbols.

DIGITAL COMMNICATION
Channel Decoder:
This sequence of numbers then passed through the channel decoder
which attempts to reconstruct the original information sequence from
the knowledge of the code used by the channel encoder and the
redundancy contained in the received data
Source Decoder
At the end, if an analog signal is desired then source decoder tries to
decode the sequence from the knowledge of the encoding algorithm.
And which results in the approximate replica of the input at the
transmitter end

DIGITAL COMMNICATION
Channel Decoder:
This sequence of numbers then passed through the channel decoder
which attempts to reconstruct the original information sequence from
the knowledge of the code used by the channel encoder and the
redundancy contained in the received data
Source Decoder
At the end, if an analog signal is desired then source decoder tries to
decode the sequence from the knowledge of the encoding algorithm.
And which results in the approximate replica of the input at the
transmitter end
Output Transducer:
Finally we get the desired signal in desired format analog or digital.

PULSE MODULATION

PULSE MODULATION

SAMPLING

SAMPLING THEOREM

3 ANALOG PULSE
MODULATION :

PULSE AMPLITUDE
MODULATION (PAM)
Analog pulse

Sample pulse

The amplitude of a constant width, constant position pulse is varied

according to the amplitude of the sample of the analog signal.
the amplitude of a pulse coincides with the amplitude of the analog
signal.

PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

(PWM)

A constant amplitude pulse is varied proportional to the

amplitude of the analog signal at the time the signal is
sampled.
The maximum analog signal amplitude produces the widest
pulse, and the minimum analog signal amplitude produces
the narrowest pulse.

PULSE POSITION MODULATION

(PPM)

The position of a constant-width pulse within prescribed

time slot is varied according to the amplitude of the sample
of the analog signal.
The higher the amplitude of the sample, the farther to the
right the pulse is positioned within the prescribed time slot.
The highest amplitude sample produces a pulse to the far
right, and the lowest amplitude sample produces a pulse to

DIGITAL PULSE MODULATION

(DPM)
In DPM, a code used to represent the
amplitude of the samples that has been
divided into various levels.
There are 2 types of DPM:
Pulse Code Modulation
Delta Modulation

PULSE CODE MODULATION

(PCM)

PCM is a form of modulation, which uses coded group of pulses to

represent certain values of the information signal.
The analog signal is sampled and then converted to a serial n-bit binary
code for transmission.
Each code has the same number of bits and requires the same length of
time or transmission.

PCM BLOCK DIAGRAM

Analogu
e Signal

Low
Pass
Filter

Sampler

Low
Pass
Filter

Quantis
er

Encoder

Decoder

Expande
r

Analogu
e Signal

PCM BLOCK DIAGRAM

PCM is a form of modulation, which uses
coded group of pulses to represent certain
values of the information signal.
The information signal is limited to a certain
maximum freq and sampled and changed to
PAM.
The PAM signal is then quantise by the
quantiser and then changed into the binary
code by the encoder.

Then the PCM signal is sent through the

PCM BLOCK DIAGRAM

PCM TRANSMITTER

PCM RECEIVER

PULSE CODE MODULATION

(PCM)

The 3 main processes in PCM:

1) Sampling
2) Quantization
3) Encoding

PCM - SAMPLING

Process of taking samples of the information

signals at Nyquist Rate :
fs 2fmax
fs frequency sampling
fm modulating frequency
Minimum freq sampling, fs = 2fm

PCM - QUANTIZATION
The amplitude of the samples are then
divided into respective levels. The number of
levels for the samples depend on the number of
bits used to code the signal.
The relationshipB between the number of bits
(B) is given by the equation: M= 2
M- Number of levels
B Bits/ samples
The more levels used means that an analogue
signal can be describe more accurate.

PCM - ENCODING
In this process, the samples that has been
divided into various levels is coded into
respective codes where the samples that have
the same number of level are coded into the
same code.
The number of bits depends on the number
of level used to quantise the samples.
B = log2 M

PCM

DELTA MODULATION

DELTA MODULATION

Next form of pulse modulation

Transmits information only to indicate

whether the analog signal that is being
encoded goes up or goes down

The Encoder Outputs are highs or lows

that instruct whether to go up or down,
respectively

DM takes advantage of the fact that

voice signals do not change abruptly

DELTA MODULATION

DELTA MODULATION

There are two problems associated with delta

modulation that do not occur with conventional PCM:

slope overload and granular noise.

DELTA MODULATION
(Quantization Errors)

SLOPE OVERLOAD

When the analog input signal

changes at a faster rate than the DAC can
maintain.

The slope of the analog signal is

greater than the delta modulator can
maintain and is called slope overload.

Increasing the clock frequency

reduces the probability of slope overload
occurring.

Another way to prevent slope

overload is to increase the magnitude of

SLOPE OVERLOAD

GRANULAR NOISE

When the original analog input signal

has a relatively constant amplitude, the
reconstructed signal has variations that
were not present in the original signal.

DELTA MODULATION
(Quantization Errors)

DELTA SIGMA MODULATION

The modulation which has an integrator can relieve the
draw back of delta modulation (differentiator)
Beneficial effects of using integrator:
1. Pre-emphasize the low-frequency content
2. Increase correlation between adjacent samples
(reduce the variance of the error signal at the
quantizer input )
3. Simplify receiver design
Because the transmitter has an integrator , the receiver
consists simply of a low-pass filter. (The differentiator in
the conventional DM receiver is cancelled by the integrator
)

DELTA SIGMA MODULATION

DELTA SIGMA MODULATION

Signal-to-Quantization-Noise Ratio
(SQNR or SNqR)
is a measurement of the effect of quantization errors introduced by
analog-to-digital conversion at the ADC.

Refer to page 421 - 422

MODEM (Modulation &

Demodulation)

MODEM CONNECTION

P
C
110011

MODE
M

DCE
DT
E

P
C

MODEM
1100
11

DCE
DT
E

MODEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

MODEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

MODEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

COMMON MODEM USED:

MULTIPLEXING

MULTIPLEXING (MUX)

General multiplex scheme: the input lines-channels are multiplexed

into a single fast line. The demultiplexer receives the multiplexed
data stream and extracts the original channels to be transferred

MULTIPLEXING (MUX)

MULTIPLEXING (MUX)

FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING

FDM

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

TDM

WAVELENGTH DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING

WDM

CDMA (CODE DIVISION

MULTIPLE ACCESS)

CDMA

COMPARE BETWEEN TDM &

FDM

COMPARE BETWEEN TDM &

FDM

The primary difference between FDM and TDM is how they divide the
channel. FDM divides the channel into two or more frequency ranges that do
not overlap, while TDM divides and allocates certain time periods to each
channel in an alternating manner.

Due to this fact, we can say that for TDM, each signal uses all of the
bandwidth some of the time, while for FDM, each signal uses a small portion of
the bandwidth all of the time.

TDM provides greater flexibility and efficiency, by dynamically allocating

more time periods to the signals that need more of the bandwidth, while
reducing the time periods to those signals that do not need it. FDM lacks this
type of flexibility, as it cannot dynamically change the width of the allocated
frequency.

COMPARE BETWEEN TDM &

FDM

The advantage of FDM over TDM is in latency. Latency is the time it

takes for the data to reach its destination.

As TDM allocates time periods, only one channel can transmit at a given
time, and some data would often be delayed, though its often only in
milliseconds. Since channels in FDM can transmit at any time, their latencies
would be much lower compared to TDM.

FDM is often used in applications where latency is of utmost priority, such

as those that require real-time information.
FDM and TDM are often used in tandem, to create even more channels in a
given frequency range. The common practice is to divide the channel with
FDM, so that you have a dedicated channel with a smaller frequency range.
Each of the FDM channels is then occupied by multiple channels that are
multiplexed using TDM. This is what telecoms do to allow a huge number of
users to use a certain frequency band.

COMPARE BETWEEN MUX &

MULTIPLE ACCESS

INFORMATION CAPACITY
Is a measure of how much information can be
propagated through a communications system
and is a function of bandwidth and transmission
time.
Information capacity represents the number of
independent symbols that can carried through a
system in a given unit of time.
The most basic digital symbol used to represent
information is the bit.

BIT, BIT RATE, BAUD,

BANDWIDTH

BANDWIDTH

SHANNONS LIMIT & M-ary

ENCODING

DIGITAL MODULATION
TECHNIQUES

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Phase Shift Keying (PSK)