Quamtuum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics replaces classical mechanics and classical

electromagnetism at the atomic and subatomic levels. It is a
important part of theoretical physics and has many applications
in experimental physics.
Quantum (quantification) is connected to the discrete units that
the theory assigns to certain physical quantities, such as the
energy of an atom at rest.
In the first half of the twentieth century the physicists Werner
Heisenberg, , Louis de Broglie, Niels Bohr, Erwin Schrdinger,
Max Born, John von Neumann, Paul Dirac, Albert Einstein and
Wolfgang Pauli established the foundations of quantum
mechanics.

Werner Heisenberg

The Heisenberg uncertainty principle discovered in 1927

He invented matrix mechanics, the first formalization of quantum
mechanics in 1925
Together with Bohr, he formulated the Copenhagen interpretation of
quantum mechanics
He received the Nobel Prize in physics in 1932 for the creation of
quantum mechanics
He collaborated with Wolfgang Pauli, and along with Paul Dirac,
developed an early version of quantum electrodynamics.

Max Planck

The founder of quantum theory, the problem of black-body

radiation (Plancks law), Nobel Prize in Physics 1918
(awarded 1919)

Louis de Broglie

De Broglie hypothesis which states that any moving particle or

object has an associated wave. For this hypothesis he won the
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929. Among the applications of this
work has been the development of electron microscopes to get
much better image resolution than optical ones, because of
shorter wavelengths of electrons compared with photons

Niels Bohr

Bohr's model; quantization of electron's orbital angular

momentum; electrons travel in discrete orbits around the
atom's nucleus, with the chemical properties of the element
being largely determined by the number of electrons in each
of the outer orbits; an electron could drop from a higherenergy orbit to a lower one, emitting a photon of discrete
energy; the principle of complementarity which states that
items could be separately analyzed as having several
contradictory properties. He received the Nobel Prize for
Physics for this work in 1922.

Erwin Schrdinger

the Schrdinger equation. He received the Nobel Prize in 1933 for

his contributions to quantum mechanics, especially the
Schrdinger equation

Max Born

formulated together with Heisenberg the matrix mechanics

representation of quantum mechanics. He formulated the
now-standard interpretation of the probability density
function for * in the Schrdinger equation of quantum
mechanics. He won the 1954 Nobel Prize in Physics

John von Neumann

was a pioneer of the modern digital computer and the

application of operator theory to quantum mechanics

Paul Dirac

the Dirac equation which describes the behavior of fermions and

which led to the prediction of the existence of antimatter; the
founder of quantum electrodynamics . He shared the Nobel
Prize in physics for 1933 for the discovery of new productive
forms of atomic theory with Erwin Schrdinger

Albert Einstein

the probabilistic interpretation of quantum theory, the quantum

theory of a monatomic gas, the thermal properties of light with
a low radiation density which laid the foundation of the photon
theory of light, the theory of radiation. He was awarded the
1921 Nobel Prize for Physics for his 1905 explanation of the
photoelectric effect and for his services to theoretical physics

Wolfgang Pauli

the theory of nonrelativistic spin, and in particular the discovery

of the exclusion principle which explains why matter occupies
space exclusively for itself and does not allow other material
objects to pass through it, at the same time allowing light and
radiation to pass. It states that no two identical fermions may
occupy the same quantum state simultaneously

Mathematical Statements
De Broglie hypothesis
De Broglie hypothesis (1924) states that any moving particle or
object has an associated wave. These waves are called de
Broglie waves.
If a particle behaves as a wave, the wave-particle duality, we
have to determine the wavelength and frequency.
The de Broglie hypothesis states that the expressions of energy
and momentum of photons can be generalized at the
electromagnetic radiation and also at particles.
The wavelength of a particle which has the mass and the
velocity is given by
1.

h
h

p
mv

The monentum and the energy are given by

p k, E
Experimental confirmation of de Broglie hypothesis
The Davisson-Germer experiment showed the wave-nature of
matter, and completed the theory of wave-particle duality.
Since the original Davisson-Germer experiment for
electrons, the de Broglie hypothesis has been confirmed for
other elementary particles