IGC 2 : ELEMENT 7

CHEMICAL &
BIOLOGICAL HEALTH
HAZARDS & CONTROL

FORMS OF CHEMICAL
AGENTS
DUSTS

VAPORS

FUMES

LIQUIDS

GASES

fibers

MISTS

FORMS OF BIOLOGICAL
AGENTS
BACTERIA
VIRUS
FUNGI
PARASITES

The four main classifications of occupational

health hazards are:
1. Physical:
Machinery, Electricity, Heat, Noise
2. Chemical:
Acids, Alkalis, Asbestos
3. Biological:
HIV Virus, Legionella, Bacteria
4. Ergonomic:
Posture problems, Fatigue

1. PHYSICAL HAZARDS
Examples include:
Heat
Heat cataract, heat stroke
Lighting
Eye problems
Noise
Noise induced hearing
(occupational deafness)
Vibration
Vibration induced white finger
Radiation
Radiation sickness (at ionising
wavelengths), burns, arc eye
Dust
Silicosis, coal workers
Pressure
Decompression sickness
Asbestos fibres
Asbestosis, lung cancer,
mesothelioma

2. CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Examples include:

Acids and alkalis

Metals
Non metals
Gases
arsine poisoning
Organic
bladder cancer
compounds

Dermatitis
Lead and mercury poisoning
Arsenic and phosphorus poisoning
Carbon monoxide poisoning;
Occupational cancers, e.g.

3. BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Examples include:
Animal borne
Anthrax, brucellosis,
leptospirosis, rabies
Human borne
Viral hepatitis
Vegetable borneAspergillosis (Farmers Lung)
Others (water/land)
Legionella

Control measures to control biological hazards

should be:
Cleaning / disinfection
Water treatment programmes
Vermin control
Procedures for handling, containment and disposal
Personal hygiene i.e. cover wounds
Immunisation
Health surveillance
Specific training
Personal Protective Equipment

Dusts

Solid particles suspended in the air for a period of time.

Size ranges from 0.1m (fine) to 100m (coarse).
Produced by mechanical process e.g. grinding, or by construction
process e.g. demolition, or other specific tasks e.g. cotton or wood
work

Respirable dust: fine dusts that penetrate deep into the lungs &
stay there (in rare cases enters the blood stream) e.g. Cement & Silica

Inhalable dust: capable of entering nose & mouth during breathing,

without reaching lower levels of respiratory system.

Fumes

Formed when a material from a volatilized solid condenses in cool air.

Usually extremely fine <1.0m e.g. welding & soldering fumes.

Gases

Formless fluids which expand to occupy the space in which they're confined
e.g. Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Sulphide etc

Mists

Suspended liquid droplets generated by condensation of liquids from the vapor

back to the liquid state or by breaking up liquid into dispersed state e.g. paint
spraying mist (atomization).

Vapors

Volatile forms of substance that are normally in the solid or liquid state at room
temperature & pressure e.g. solvents used in degreasing (toluene, acetone
etc).

Liquids

Fluids that exist normally at temperature between boiling & freezing.

Smoke

Aerosol of solid or liquid particles, <0.1m in size, resulting from incomplete

combustion of carbonaceous materials e.g. Carbon particles.

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Forms of Biological agent

Fungi

Very small organisms, sometimes single cell or multi cellular

e.g. yeast
Reproduce by spore formation
Can not produce their own food, they feed on dead organic
matter or living hosts
Spores can cause allergic reaction when inhaled
Cause mild infection in man e.g. athlete's foot or severe e.g.
ring worm
Many fungal infections can be treated by anti fungal or anti
biotic medication

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Forms of Biological agent

Bacteria

Very small single cell organisms, much smaller than human body cells
e.g. Tuberculosis.
They can survive outside the human body.
Can be destroyed by antibiotics, but now they're getting resistant.

Viruses

Minute non-cellular organisms which can only reproduce & survive

within a host cell.
Very much smaller than bacteria & not controlled by antibiotics.
Continually developing new strains with new genetic material e.g.
Influenza, hepatitis & AIDS
Usually only defeated by human body defense & healing mechanisms.

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CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTANCES
HAZARDOUS TO HEALTH

TOXIC
CORROSIVE

OR
CARCINOGENIC

OR
HARMFUL

DISCUSS ACUTE & CHRONIC HEALTH EFFECTS

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Harmful: Substance which if swallowed, inhaled or

penetrates the skin, causes limited health risks.
Risks can be minimized or removed by following the
instruction provided with the substance.

Irritant: Non-corrosive substance which can cause

skin or lung inflammation after repeated contact.
People who react that way to a particular substance
are sensitized or allergic to that substance.

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Corrosive: Substances that will cause chemical

burns to human tissue. Usually strong acid or alkali
e.g. Sulphuric acid.

Toxic: Poisonous substance which will prevent the

function of one or more organs within the body e.g.
liver, kidney etc.

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Carcinogenic: Substances suspected to promote

abnormal development of cancer cells e.g. Asbestos.

Mutagenic: Substance that damage genetic material

causing abnormal changes that can be passed on
from one generation to another.

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HEALTH HAZARDS OF SPECIFIC

AGENTS
Ammonia:

Colorless gas with distinctive odor, strongly

alkaline.
It is corrosive; burns skin, seriously damage the
eyes, soreness & ulceration of throat, severe
bronchitis & lung edema.
Used in production of fertilizers & synthetic fibers.

Chlorine:

Toxic, greenish gas with a pungent smell.

Highly irritant to the respiratory system; severe
bronchitis & lungs edema
Used as a disinfectant for drinking water &
swimming pool water.

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HEALTH HAZARDS OF SPECIFIC

AGENTS
Carbon Dioxide:

Organic Solvents:

Colorless, odorless gas &

heavier than air.

It represses the respiratory

system causing death by
asphyxiation.

Used widely in the industry as

cleansing & degreasing
agents.

At low concentration;
headache, sweating & loss
of consciousness.

Used as varnishes, paints,

adhesives, glue strippers,
thinners & printing inks.

Produced as by product in
fermentation processes e.g.
brewing

All are heavier than air,

sensitizers & irritants to eyes
& respiratory system

Some are narcotics, cause

dermatitis, affect the brain &
nervous system.
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HEALTH HAZARDS OF SPECIFIC AGENTS

Carbon Monoxide:

Colorless, odorless & tasteless

gas, impossible to detect without
detection device.

It enters the blood & binds with

the red blood cells more readily
than Oxygen & restricts Oxygen
supply to vital organs.

Silica:

Harm is caused by inhalation of

silica dust which can lead to
silicosis, fibrosis &
pneumoconiosis.

Respirable dust is the most

harmful as it is trapped in the
alveoli.

It headaches, nausea,
drowsiness, flushed appearance
& ultimately asphyxiation.

With silicosis; breathing

becomes more difficult & later on
lung & heart failure might occur.

Produced as an exhaust gas from

a vehicle or a heating system as a
result of incomplete combustion.

Mining, Quarries, Stone working,

ceramic, pottery & brick making

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Isocyanates:

Volatile organic compounds.

Irritants & sensitizers.
They cause inflammation of the nasal passage, throat &
bronchitis.
Health hazards to fire fighters.
Widely used for products such as printing inks, adhesives, &
the manufacture of plastic.

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HEALTH HAZARDS OF SPECIFIC

AGENTS
Asbestos: Blue, Brown & White

Lead:

Heavy, soft & easily worked

metal.
Affects mainly the brain &
spinal cord, the blood &
blood production.
Effects are usually chronic &
cumulative, normally enters
body by inhalation, ingestion
or skin contact.
Early symptoms include
colic, headache & nausea

Produces fine fibrous dust of

respirable size that can become
lodged in the lungs.

Fibers can be very sharp causing

damage to the lining of the lungs
over a very long period of time.

Can lead to asbestosis (fibrosis),

lung cancer or Mesothelioma
(cancer of the lung lining).

Typical sites include ceiling tiles,

asbestos cement roof & wall
sheets.

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HEALTH HAZARDS OF SPECIFIC

AGENTS
Leptospirosis: Weil's disease
Caused by bacteria found in the
urine of rats.
Manifests by fever & flu like
symptoms.
At late stage kidneys & liver are
affected & Jaundice appears.
Treated by antibiotics. No vaccine
for humans.
Common in sewage workers
(through skin or by ingestion), dogs
& pigs' handlers.

Legionella:

Airborne bacteria found in a variety

of water sources.

Produces a form of atypical

pneumonia & influenza like
symptoms caused by the bacteria
penetrating the alveoli of the lungs.

The bacteria require food in the form

of algae or other bacteria (in
stagnant water).

Common in water system e.g.

cooling towers, showers & airconditions if not properly maintained
& treated.

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HEALTH HAZARDS OF SPECIFIC

AGENTS
Hepatitis:

Disease of the liver cause by a

virus (A, B, C & others) or some
hazardous substances e.g.
organic solvents.

Causes high temperature, nausea

& jaundice.

The Virus can be transmitted by

infected faeces (A), infected blood
(B & C) or sexually (C).

Usually destroys the normal

architect of the liver cells in an
irreversible manner liver
failure.

Health care workers, care

givers & any workers
involved with bodily fluids
are at high risk of infection
by ingestion or by direct
entry (needle stick).
Key controls include:
personal hygiene, PPE,
water treatment,
vaccination, & proper
disposal of any
contaminated waste.
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Route of Entry
Defense Mechanism
Inhalation

Breathing in the substance with the normal breathing air.

Main & most dangerous route of contaminants to the body.
Contaminants then enter the lungs where they have access to
the blood stream & body systems.
Hairs & mucous in the nose that traps the dust.
Sneezing & coughing reflexes; get rid of inhaled particles.
Tiny hairs (cilia) hitting upwards; carry inhaled particles back to
larynx to be spat or swallowed.
White blood cells in the tiny blood vessels around the alveoli
that attack foreign bodies by different mechanisms.

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Ingestion

Contaminants enter through the mouth & are swallowed into the
stomach & digestive system.
Not a significant route of entry.
Occurs accidentally, due to poor hygiene or to commit suicide.
Stomach has acids & various enzymes that kill biological
contaminants e.g. bacteria
Some contaminants will cause an immediate reaction initiating
other defense mechanisms e.g. vomiting & diarrhea
Many toxics can be broken down in the liver.

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Skin Absorption

Substances come into contact with skin & enter either through
pores or wounds.
Solvents & bacteria e.g. tetanus can enter in this way
Note: Injection is another route of entry, through contaminated
needles, sharp objects or gases/liquids under pressure.
Skin secretes natural protective oils to protect against waters &
weak chemicals.
It has sensory nerves to alert against high temperature &
initiate defense reflexes e.g. withdrawal reflex
Skin has special pigments to protect against UV of the sunlight.
Dermatitis; reaction showing body's fight against harmful
substances.

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GROUP ACTIVITY
DISCUSS THE ENTRY ROUTES OF HAZARDOUS
SUBSTANCES TO THE HUMAN BODY & THE
DEFENSE MECHANISMS

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OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE LIMITS

WORKPLACE EXPOSURE LIMITS WEL IS: "The maximum
concentration of airborne hazardous substances that people
inhale over a specified period of time known as: Time
Weighted Average".
In USA the WEL is known as Threshold Limit Values TLV
In Europe EU WEL is known as Indicative Limit Values ILV
Long-term Exposure Limit (LTEL) or 8 hour reference
period of exposure (considers chronic effects).
Short-term Exposure Limit (STEL) or 15 minute
reference period of exposure (considers acute effects).

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 In USA the WEL is known as Threshold

Limit Values TLV
In Europe EU WEL is known as Indicative
Limit Values ILV

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Limitations of OEL:
Specifically quoted for 8 hour period.
Used only for workplace exposure & not for non
occupational exposure.
They should not be used in cases of emergency
build up of hazardous substances e.g. in confined
space emergencies
Chemicals can enter the body by other routes other
than inhalation!!

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SOURCES OF INFORMATION
LABELS
INVENTORY
MATERIAL SAFETY
DATA SHEET

MATERIAL
SAFETY
DATA SHEET

TRADE ASSOCIATION
PUBLICATIONS
THE INTERNET

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1] Product labels:

Chemical name
Details of the hazards & classification
Precautions needed
Name & contacts of the manufacturer

2] Inventory:

Complete inventory of all hazardous substances in the

workplace
Search well & look for expired & old stored forgotten
chemicals

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3] Material Safety Data Sheet MSDS:

Manufacturer's name & contact details

Chemical composition of the hazardous substance
Chemical & physical properties of the substance
First Aid & Fire Fighting measures
Spill mitigation measures
Adverse Health effects & OEL
Handling, transport & storage
Disposal consideration
Environmental impact
Other information

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4] Trade association publications, Industrial codes

of practice & specialist reference manuals.
5] EU list of ILV / ACGIH (American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists) list of TLV /
HSE list of OEL / UK COSHH Guidelines
6] Search the Internet (see element 1 for useful
websites).

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BASIC SURVEY TECHNIQUES FOR HEALTH RISKS

Stain Tube Detector: Grab sampler

Direct reading glass indicator tubes filled with chemical crystals

change color when a particular hazardous substance passes through
them.
The glass tube is opened at each end & fitted into a pumping device.

Passive Sampling:

Measured over a full working period of time

Done through a badge worn by the worker containing absorbent

Smoke Tubes:

Generate a white smoke which may be used to indicate the direction of

air flow

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BASIC SURVEY TECHNIQUES FOR HEALTH

RISKS
Direct Reading Instruments:

Sophisticated analyzers
Can only be used by trained & experienced operatives.
Infra red gas analyzers are the most common
Very accurate & give continuous or TWA
Very expensive

Dust Observation Lamp:

Enables dust particles which are normally invisible to human eye to be

observed in the light beam
This dust is usually respirable

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TOXICOLOGY
Definition:

The study of how different materials will affect the human body.

The effect that a substance will have on the body will depend
on a number of factors:

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The effect that a substance will have on

the body will depend on a number of
factors:
Route of Entry
Toxicity
Dose & Response

38

The routes of entry are:

Inhalation
Ingestion
Absorption
Injection

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 Toxicity

The potential of a substance to cause

harm to living things.

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 Dose & Response

Dose is defined as:
How much of a substance you are exposed to and
how long the exposure to the substance lasts.
This produces the response which is how the body
reacts to the exposure. The response can depend
on things such as: body weight, age, skin type,
sex, diet and general health.

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Sensitising dermatitis (eczema)

A second form of dermatitis is called
sensitising dermatitis. In this case a person
exposed to the substance develops dermatitis,
when taken away the dermatitis repairs but the
body gets ready for later exposures by
preparing the bodys defence mechanisms. A
subsequent small exposure is enough to cause
a major response.

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TARGET ORGANS
A Target Organ is defined as:
An organ within the human body on which a
specific toxic material exerts it effects e.g. lungs,
liver, brain, skin, bladder and eyes. Substances can
also target the bodys systems e.g. central nervous
system, circulatory system, reproductive system.

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Examples of substances which have a systemic

effect and their target organs are:
Alcohol
- central nervous system, liver
Lead - bone marrow and brain damage
Mercury
- brain, central nervous system

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If High Risk occupational exposure limits are exceeded

the employer should:
Stop the process
Remove employees from area
Investigate reason
Assess existing controls
Monitor procedures
Assess ill health to workers
Record incident

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1) IDENTIFY THE HAZARDS

How much of the substance is in use or produced by the

process
What is the activity at risk
How long and how often is the exposure
Who can be exposed and how
How can the substance enter the body
In what form is of the substance
What is the concentration of the substance
Is the substance assigned an exposure limit
Are there any ill-health reports
Look at the results of health surveillance

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2) DECIDE WHO MIGHT BE HARMED AND HOW

The employees who work in the area can obviously
be affected but consideration also needs to given to
other employees, contractors, visitors and members
of the public. Consideration also needs to be given
to particularly vulnerable people, e.g. pregnant
workers, the disabled and those with health
problems.

Operators, Others, Pregnant and young worker

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3) Evaluate the Health risk & existing

precautions
Likelihood and Severity
Existing control measures
Judgement about need for further control measures
The existing control measures should be identified to
decide if they are used and adequately control
exposures to the substance. If not a decision must be
made on further control measures.

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4) Record the significant findings

The significant findings should be recorded. The
assessment may also record such things as:
Number of affected people
Adequacy of existing controls
Further precautions, if necessary

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5) REVIEW THE ASSESSMENT

Management of health and safety is an ongoing
process and management must regularly review all
the hazardous substances assessments carried out
to ensure that they are still valid. The time between
reviews will depend on the type of risk, the work and
the employers judgment on the likelihood of
changes occurring.

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The assessment must be immediately reviewed when

there is evidence it is no longer valid e.g.:
The results of examination and tests of engineering
controls indicate problems
The results of monitoring indicate too high exposure
levels
The results of health surveillance indicate health
problems
Complaints are received from supervisors, employees
etc. about defects in the control systems

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Assessment should also be reviewed if conditions

change or new information comes to light e.g.:
New process or substance is introduced
Exposure limit is changed
Someone contracts a disease
Complaints of ill health from workforce
New guidance is published on control measures
Increase in use of hazardous substance
Supervision reports improper use of equipment
Enforcement actions
Compensation claims

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Emergency Procedures

The emergency procedure should include:

First aid facilities
Relevant safety drills
Suitable warning devices
Suitable training of staff
PPE
Emergency showers and eye-wash facilities
Spillage and leakage procedures
Evacuation procedures
Warnings to other people

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To be effective the emergency plan must:

Identify all potential accident or emergency situations

Introduce controls to prevent accident and emergency
situations arising
Include procedures to minimise the consequences of any
potential environmental impacts
Have clearly documented plans and procedures for
responding to emergencies
Be periodically reviewed and revised if necessary
Be periodically tested if possible

54

Waste Management
Waste can be described as the materials or
substances that are no longer needed which
are discarded or thrown away. Waste
generation is a major environmental problem
with more being generated annually.

55

Storing Waste
When storing hazardous materials the precautions should be:
Storage area of a sufficient size
Storage area suitably located away from drains etc.
Storage area clearly labeled
Individual containers clearly labeled
Different types of waste stored separately
Incompatible wastes never stored together
Appropriate containers for type of waste
Storage of waste kept to a minimum
Protect wastes from the elements if necessary
If necessary protect storage area with bunds etc.
Do not dispose of hazardous waste in general waste skips
Ensure storage area is secure

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CONTROL MEASURES
Eliminate or stop using the
hazardous substance

Reduction of the time of

exposure; job rotation & shifts

Substitute hazardous
substance by a less
hazardous one

Good hygiene & housekeeping

Total or partial enclosure of

the process; use glove box
Local Exhaust Ventilation
Dilute or general
Ventilation

Training, information, work

instructions & supervision
Health surveillance &
Personal Hygiene
Personal Protective
Equipment

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LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION

58

LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION

Collection hood & intake: The nearest part to the work piece, the speed
of the air entering the intake is important; if it is too low then the fumes
may not be removed.
Ventilation ducting: Normally acts as a conduit for the contaminated air
& transports it to a filter & settling section. It is very important to inspect &
clean this section regularly.
Filter or other air cleaning device: located between the hood & the fan,
filter removes the contaminant from the air stream. Requires regular
attention & proper cleaning.
Fan: moves the air through the system. Should be positioned so that it
can be easily maintained & needs to be of right type & size.
Exhaust duct: exhausts the air to the outside of the building. Should be
checked regularly to make sure there is no leakage or corrosion due to
weather.

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DILUTION (GENERAL) VENTILATION

ADVANTAGES:
Uses either natural ventilation;
doors & windows

Or fan assisted forced ventilation

to ventilate the whole working
room; by inducing a flow of clean
air, extraction fans fitted into the
roof.
Operates by removing the
contaminant or reducing the
concentration to an acceptable
level.

Limitations:
Certain area of the
working room will not
receive the ventilated air
& a build-up of hazardous
substance will occur

The flow patterns are

affected by doors,
windows & furniture.

Not suitable for dust

extraction

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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Respiratory Protective Equipment:
Filtering half mask; disposable respirator,
removes respirable size dust particles. Covers
nose & mouth & provides protection against some
vapors & gases.
Half mask respirator; made of rubber or plastic
& covers the nose & mouth. Air is drawn through
a replaceable filter cartridge. Used for vapor,
gases or dusts.
Full face mask respirator; similar to half mask
but covers the eyes.
Self contained breathing apparatus; air is
supplied from a compressed air cylinder

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 Powered respirator; battery-operated fan delivers air

through a filter to the mask.
Fresh air hose apparatus; fresh air is delivered
through a hose to a sealed face mask from an
uncontaminated source. Air is delivered by wearer, by
natural breathing or mechanically by fan.
Compressed air line apparatus; air is delivered
through a hose from a compressed air line. Can be
continuous flow or on demand.

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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE
EQUIPMENT
HEAD PROTECTION
HAND PROTECTION
FEET PROTECTION

EYE PROTECTION

LAST RESORT
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2] Hand & Skin Protection

Use of glove; against chemicals, sharp objects, heat, cold &

rough working.
Use of barrier creams; pre-work & after-work to replace natural
skin oils.

3] Feet protection

Wide range of safety boots available

Against chemicals, heavy objects, sharp objects
Anti slippery soles & against electricity

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4] Head protection

Hard hats; construction, anti electric shock etc

Bump caps

5] Eye protection

Safety glasses (spectacles); low risk hazards

Safety goggles; splashes, dust & solvent vapors
Face visors; against steaming up in hot & humid environment

6] Torso protection

Coveralls & Aprons; against spills, sunlight & to protect

against loose clothes getting entangled in moving machinery
parts.

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Air Pollution:
Outdoors; machinery & industry emissions &
smoking. Indoors; heating systems & sprays etc
Mainly by emissions; carbon monoxide, sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide & lead etc
Leads to Acid rain & global warming
Have serious Health effects on human beings

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Water Pollution:
Pollution of rivers & other water sources can have
serious effects on the health of living organisms.
Leakage from industrial soak away or chemical
factories.
Sewer discharge & oil spill contaminating
underground water
Water samples should be taken from water sources
& sewers.
MSDS to advise on proper disposal of different
hazardous substances

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Waste Management Hierarchy:

Prevention: by changing the process so that the waste is

not produced.
Reduction: improving the efficiency of the process
Reuse: by recycling the waste back into the process
Recovery: releasing energy through the combustion or
recycling of waste.
Responsible disposal: disposal in accordance with
regulatory requirements & never mix different types of
hazardous wastes.

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