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Chapter 2
Nonlinear Structural
Nonlinear Structural Analysis
Chapter Overview
The following will be covered in this Chapter:
General Background on Nonlinear Theory
Setting Up Nonlinear Analyses
Metal Plasticity
Solving Nonlinear Models
Reviewing Results
The capabilities described in this section are generally

applicable to ANSYS Structural licenses and above.
Exceptions will be noted accordingly
ANSYS Workbench Simulation
Training Manual
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A. Background on Linear Analysis
In Chapter 4 of the Workbench Simulation Intro course,

the assumptions and restrictions related to performing
linear static structural analysis were covered:
The matrix equation solved for is Hookes Law:
K x F
Because [K] is assumed to be constant,

essentially only linear behavior is allowed
As shown on the figure on the right, if the

force doubles, the displacement (and stresses)
are assumed to double in linear analysis
In many real-world situations, however, this smalldisplacement theory may not be valid. In these situations,
nonlinear analysis may be required.
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Background on Nonlinear Analysis

There are three main sources of nonlinearities:
Geometric nonlinearities: If a structure
experiences large deformations, its
changing geometric configuration can
cause nonlinear behavior.
Material nonlinearities: A nonlinear stress-strain
relationship, such as metal plasticity shown on
the right, is another source of nonlinearities.
Contact: Include effects of contact is a type
of changing status nonlinearity, where an
abrupt change in stiffness may occur when
bodies come into or out of contact with each
other.
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Training Manual
K x x F
The resulting force vs. displacement curve

may be nonlinear, as shown on the right, so
doubling the force does not necessarily
result in doubling of the displacements
and stresses
A nonlinear analysis is an iterative solution

because this relationship between load (F)
and response (x) is not known beforehand
No time-dependent effects are considered.
In a nonlinear static analysis, the stiffness [K] is dependent

on the displacement {x}:
It is important to remember these assumptions related to

performing nonlinear static analyses in Simulation.
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Newton-Raphson Method
The actual relationship between load and
displacement (shown with a yellow dotted line) is not
known beforehand
Consequently, a series of linear approximations with
corrections is performed. This is a simplified
explanation of the Newton-Raphson method (shown
as solid red lines)
Nonlinear solutions require several iterations
Training Manual
Newton-Raphson Method
In the Newton-Raphson Method, the total
load Fa is applied in iteration 1. The result
Fa
is x1. From the displacements, the internal
4
3
forces F1 can be calculated. If F a F1, then
2
the system is not in equilibrium. Hence,
F1
a new stiffness matrix (slope of red line) is
1
calculated based on the current conditions.
The difference of Fa - F1 is the out-of-balance
or residual forces. The residual forces must
x1
x
be small enough for the solution to converge.
This process is repeated until F a = Fi. In this example,
after iteration 4, the system achieves equilibrium and the
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solution is said to be converged.
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Nonlinear Solution
Training Manual
It is useful to understand how loads are managed

Load steps are changes in general loading.
Simulation usually solves all nonlinear models with one load step, but,
in the case of Pretension Bolt Loads, this is done in two load steps.
The bolt preload is applied first, then all other loads are applied next.
These load steps can be thought of as Fa and Fb.
Substeps apply the loads in an incremental fashion

Because of the complex response, it
may be necessary to apply the load
incrementally. For example, Fa1 may be
near 50% of the Fa load. After the load
for Fa1 is converged, then the full Fa load
is applied. Fa has 2 substeps while Fb
has 3 substeps in this example
Equilibrium iterations are the corrective

solutions to obtain a converged substep
Fb
Fb2
Fb1
Fa
Fa1
xa
In the example on right, the iterations between the dotted white lines
indicate equilibrium iterations.
xb
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In Simulation, the following types of nonlinear static structural

analyses are directly available via the GUI:
Large deflection effects
Nonlinear contact (I.e. frictionless, frictional, no separation)
Metal plasticity (Bi-linear or Multi-linear Isotropic Hardening).
Many more advanced nonlinear features are not available

directly in the Simulation interface.
These items can be added with Command Objects

Advanced Nonlinear material models (i.e. Creep, Hyperelasticity)
Nonlinear solution options, element formulations, and advanced
contact options
Training Manual
Advanced time-history postprocessing
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B. Nonlinear Analysis Setup
The procedure for nonlinear static analysis is very similar

to performing a linear static analysis, so not all steps will
be covered in detail. The steps in yellow italics include
options that are specific to nonlinear analyses.
Attach Geometry
Assign Material Properties (with metal plasticity, if applicable)
This will be covered in detail in Section C
Define Contact Options (if applicable)

Define Mesh Controls (optional)
Include Loads and Supports
Request Results
Set Nonlinear Solution Options
Training Manual
Solve the Model

Review Results
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Geometry (Solid Bodies)
Solid bodies are supported for large-deflection analyses

with ANSYS Structural licenses and above.
Advanced users can change the Brick Integration Scheme
from Full to Reduced, which may be useful for largedeformation problems.
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Geometry (Line/Surface Bodies)

ANSYS Professional licenses and above support largedeformation analyses with surface or line bodies.
Note that ANSYS Professional does not support a combination

of line and surface bodies. ANSYS Structural and above must
be used in these cases.
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Solid Body Contact Options
All of the contact options available in linear static analyses

are also available for nonlinear, large-deflection analyses in
ANSYS Structural licenses and above:
Contact Geometry
Solid Body Face
Solid Body Edge
Surface Body Face
Surface Body Edge
Solid Body Face

All types
All formulations
Symmetry respected
Solid Body Edge

Bonded, No Separation
All formulations
Asymmetric only
All formulations
Asymmetric only
Surface Body Face

All formulations
Symmetry respected
All formulations
Asymmetric only
All formulations
Symmetry respected
Surface Body Edge

Bonded only
MPC formulation
Asymmetric only
Bonded only
MPC formulation
Asymmetric only
Bonded only
MPC formulation
Asymmetric only
Bonded only
MPC formulation
Asymmetric only
In general, face-to-face contact for solid bodies is the only

type of contact which supports advanced nonlinear options
Most other contact involving surface bodies or solid edges
support bonded (and no separation) contact only
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Meshing Controls
Meshing considerations are usually the same in nonlinear

analyses. However, if large strains are expected, the shape
checking option may be changed to Aggressive
For large-deflection analyses, if elements may undergo some
change in shape, this may reduce the fidelity of the solution
By using Aggressive shape checking, Simulation will ensure
that the element quality is much better prior to solution in
order to anticipate distortion of the element in the course of a
large-strain analysis.
The quality of the Standard shape checking is suitable for linear
analyses, so it does not need to be changed in linear analyses
With aggressive shape checking set,

some mesh failures may be more likely.
See Ch. 3 from the Workbench Simulation Intro course for some ways to detect and
remedy mesh failures.
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Loads and Supports
Most loads and supports used in linear analyses may also

be used in large-deflection analyses
Thermal-stress analyses are supported for large-deflection
analyses.
See Chapter 6 of the Workbench Simulation Intro course on
details of performing thermal analyses
ANSYS Structural licenses do not support any thermal loads
Recall that ANSYS Professional does not support largedeflection analyses for solid bodies
Two unique items for loads and supports in large-deflection

analyses will be covered next
Orientation of loads for large-deflection
Pretension Bolt Load
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Load Orientation
It is important to note the orientation of loads and its effect

on the structure in large-deflection analyses:
Load
Acceleration
(constant direction)
Force, Moment,
Bolt Load
(constant direction)
Pressure
(always normal to
surface)
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Direction Before
Deflection
Direction After
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A Pretension Bolt Load is available in ANSYS Structural
Pretension Bolt Load is applied on a single cylindrical surface

Each load must be applied to only one set of cylindrical surface(s)
For multiple loads, add separate Pretension Bolt Loads branches
Usually, a preload value is input in the Details view

If the torque is known, this can be converted to a preload force
If known, an initial adjustment can be directly applied
Internally, preloads are applied in two steps

The preload value is applied first, which shortens the grip length
The grip length is then fixed, and any other loads are then applied
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A Pretension Bolt Load is useful to account for the effect of

the preload in bolts, which is caused by their tightening
The loss of preload and the effect the preload has on contact
regions can be included in this manner, enabling for more
complex simulation of real-world assemblies.
Contact options for parts connected with fasteners should be set
separately in the Contact branch. The Pretension Bolt Load only
controls the load on the cylindrical surface representing the bolt.
The adjustment or preload is applied in two steps.

In real life, if the fastener is tightened, its grip length changes.
Simulation mimics this the same way by first applying only the
preload or adjustment. If the preload is defined, the adjustment
(shortening of the grip length) is calculated. The given or
calculated adjustment shortens the grip length of the bolt.
Training Manual
All other external loads are then applied in the second load step,
once the grip length is shortened.
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In large-deflection analyses, the orientation of the
Pretension Bolt Load is not updated
The Pretension Bolt Load should not be applied on any part

that undergoes large rotation
The Pretension Bolt Load is applied in the center of the

solid body containing the cylindrical surface
Verify the mesh, and ensure that no constraints or bonded
contact is present near the center of the bolt solid body.
Otherwise, the preload may be overconstrained.
The Adjustment and Working Load can be reviewed

After the solution, in the Details view, the
adjustment caused by the preload is shown.
Also, the working load is provided, so the user
can determine how much preload was lost.
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The Adjustment and Working Load information is also

available in the Worksheet tab of the Environment branch
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C. Metal Plasticity
Training Manual
When a ductile material experiences stresses beyond the

elastic limit, it will yield, acquiring large permanent
deformations.
Plasticity refers to the material response beyond yield.
Plastic response is important for metal forming operations.
Plasticity is also important as an energy-absorbing mechanism
for structures in service.
Materials that fail with little plastic deformation are said to be brittle.
Ductile response is safer in many respects than is brittle response.
What is plasticity?
This section will review some basics of plasticity by defining

certain terminology.
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Elasticity
Training Manual
Before proceeding to a discussion on plasticity, it may be

useful to review elasticity of metals.
In elastic response, if the induced stresses are below the
materials yield strength, the material can fully recover its
original shape upon unloading.
From a standpoint of metals, this behavior is due to the
stretching but not breaking of chemical bonds between atoms.
Because elasticity is due to this stretching of atomic bonds, it
is fully recoverable. Moreover, these elastic strains tend to be
small.
Elastic behavior of metals is most commonly described by the
stress-strain relationship of Hookes Law:
Review of Elasticity:
E
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Plasticity
Training Manual
Plastic deformation results from slip between planes of

atoms due to shear stresses (deviatoric stresses). This
dislocation motion is essentially atoms in the crystal
structure rearranging themselves to have new neighbors
results in unrecoverable strains or permanent deformation
after load is removed.
slipping does not generally result in any volumetric strains
(condition of incompressibility), unlike elasticity
Yield Strength y
Review of Plasticity:
Unloading
Elastic
Plastic
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Rate-Independent Plasticity
Training Manual
If the material response is not dependent on the rate of

loading or deformation, the material is said to be rateindependent.
Most metals exhibit rate-independent behavior at low
temperatures (< 1/4 or 1/3 melting temperature) and low strain
rates.
Engineering vs. True Stress-Strain:
While engineering stress-strain can be used for small-strain

analyses, true stress-strain must be used for plasticity, as
they are more representative measures of the state of the
material.
Rate-Independent Plasticity:
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True Stress and Strain
Training Manual
If presented with engineering stress-strain data, one can

convert these values to true stress-strain with the following
approximations:
Up until twice the strain at which yielding occurs:
eng
eng
Up until the point at which necking occurs:
eng 1 eng
ln 1 eng
Note that, only for stress conversion, the following is assumed:

Material is incompressible (acceptable approximation for large strains)
Stress distribution across cross-section of specimen is assumed to be
uniform.
Engineering vs. True Stress-Strain (contd):
Beyond necking:
There is no conversion equation relating engineering to true stress-strain at
necking. The instantaneous cross-section must be measured.
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Yield Criterion (Yield Point)
Training Manual
The yield criteria is used to relate multiaxial stress state with

the uniaxial case.
Tensile testing on specimens provide uniaxial data, which can
easily be plotted on one-dimensional stress-strain curves, such
as those presented earlier in this section.
The actual structure usually exhibits multiaxial stress state.
The yield criterion provides a scalar invariant measure of the
stress state of the material which can be compared with the
uniaxial case.
A common yield criterion is the von Mises yield criterion

(also known as the octahedral shear stress or distortion
energy criterion). The von Mises equivalent stress is defined
as:
1
x y 2 y z 2 z x 2 6 xy2 yz2 xz2
2
Yield Criterion:
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Mises Yield Criterion

If plotted in principal stress space, the von Mises yield
surface is a cylinder.
Inside the yield surface, as noted earlier, behavior is elastic. Note that the
multiaxial stress state can exist anywhere inside of the cylinder. At the edge of
the cylinder (circle), yielding will occur. No stress state can exist outside of
the cylinder. Instead, hardening rules will describe how the cylinder changes
with respect to yielding.
Plastic
Elastic
Principal Stress Space
Training Manual
Uniaxial Stress-Strain
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Hardening Rules
Training Manual
The hardening rule describes how the yield surface

changes (size, center,shape) as the result of plastic
deformation.
The hardening rule determines when the material will yield

again if the loading is continued or reversed.
This is in contrast to elastic-perfectly-plastic materials which
exhibit no hardening -- i.e., the yield surface remains fixed.
Plastic
Yield Surface after Loading
Hardening Rules:
Elastic
Initial Yield Surface
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Isotropic Hardening
Training Manual
Isotropic hardening states that the yield surface expands

uniformly during plastic flow. The term isotropic refers to
the uniform dilatation of the yield surface and is different
from an isotropic yield criterion (i.e., material orientation).
1
Subsequent
Yield Surface
'
y
Initial Yield
Surface
'
Isotropic Hardening:
3
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Isotropic Hardening
Plotting the stress-strain curve enables an understanding

of what occurs during a loading and reverse loading cycle:
Note that the subsequent

yield in compression is
equal to the highest stress
attained during the tensile
phase.
Isotropic hardening is often
used for large strain or
proportional loading
simulations. It is usually
not applicable cyclic
loading.
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Stress-Strain Curve Representation
Training Manual
Two different type of stress-strain curve representations

are possible:
Bilinear
Multilinear
Curve shapes
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Summary of Plasticity in Simulation
In Simulation, metal plasticity can be included as part of the

model. The following points should be remembered:
Metal plasticity deals with elastic and inelastic (permanent)
deformation. Inelastic or plastic deformation occurs when the
stress is higher than the yield strength. There will always be
some recoverable strain (elastic strain) upon unloading.
A stress-strain curve is based on scalar data, usually from a
uniaxial test. A system may undergo a multiaxial stress state, so
Simulation uses the Mises yield criterion to relate a multiaxial
stress state with scalar test data. In this situation, true stress vs.
strain data should be supplied.
After yielding occurs, the yield point may increase due to strain
hardening. This changes the yield surface, and the way in which
it evolves in Simulation is determined by isotropic hardening
assumption.
Training Manual
The stress-strain curve can be represented by a bilinear or

multilinear curve.
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Material Properties
Linear elastic material properties must be supplied
The same requirements exist for linear static structural

analyses, namely that Youngs Modulus and Poissons Ratio
must be defined as a minimum.
Metal plasticity is available as a nonlinear material model.

This will be discussed next.
Other nonlinear constitutive models may be added with the
Preprocessing Command Builder
However, note that only ANSYS Structural licenses and above
support nonlinear material laws.
ANSYS Professional supports large-deflection analyses of surface
or line bodies, but it does not support any material nonlinearities
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Metal Plasticity
To add metal plasticity, first navigate to the specific part or

parts under the geometry branch. In the Details window,
highlight the material you wish to modify
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Metal Plasticity
Right side of the Engineering Data application shows the

currently defined properties. Choose Add/Remove
Properties to continue.
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Metal Plasticity
Select either Bilinear or Multilinear Isotropic Hardening

under Nonlinear > Plasticity.
Multilinear representation usually provides a more accurate
description of stress-strain curve than Bilinear.
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Metal Plasticity
To enter or modify the plasticity definition click either chart

icons for the property.
Chart Icons
To return to the general material property display use the

Close Curve icon.
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Bilinear Stress-Strain
The Bilinear Stress-Strain requires two input values:
The Yield Strength and Tangent Modulus is input in the

Details view.
The yield strength is the value at

which plastic straining occurs.
The tangent modulus is the slope
of the stress-strain curve after
yielding.
As the name implies, the Bilinear
Stress-Strain provides a simple
representation of metal plasticity
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Multilinear Stress-Strain
The Multilinear Stress-Strain allows stress-strain input:
Right-click on the spreadsheet to add rows
Input as many Strain and Stress values as needed
The stress-strain plot will be displayed dynamically
The origin (0,0) should be the first

point. Also, ensure that the second
point has the same slope as the
Youngs modulus.
Simulation assumes perfect plasticity
(zero slope) beyond the defined
stress-strain values.
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Workshop 2A
Large Deflection with Metal

Plasticity
D. Workshop 2A Metal Plasticity

Goal
Compare and contrast results using small deflection, large deflection and large
deflection with metal plasticity on a model with identical loads and boundary
conditions.
Model Description
3D large deflection of spring plate
Spring plate
Ductile steel
Loads and Boundary Conditions:
Fixed support
3 Mpa Pressure load at opposite end
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Workshop 2A Metal Plasticity
Training Manual
Start an ANSYS Workbench session. Browse for and open Spring_ws01.wbdb

project file.
This project contains a Design Modeler (DM) geometry file Spring_ws01.agdb and a
Simulation (S) file Spring_ws01.dsdb.
Highlight the the Model, Small Deflection-Linear Matl (Spring_ws01.dsdb) file and
open a Simulation Session.
Steps to Follow:
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Review the contents of the model
Highlight geometry Solid branch and

examine the Details of Solid Window
(lower left corner of screen). Note we
will start with a structure steel and
Nonlinear Material Effects off.
The boundary conditions and load
(3Mpa Pressure) have already been
defined.
Highlight the Solution branch.

Note: We accept the default settings,
including Large Deflection Off
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Add a Solution Information Folder to the
Solution Branch
Run the Solution
Solution, RMB SOLVE
After solution run is complete, open the

Solution Information folder and scroll to
near the bottom of the output. As
expected, this solves in one iteration.
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Review the displacement and stress results from this first run.
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Highlight the Small Deflection- Linear
Matl Branch at the top of the Project
Tree, and duplicate this Branch with
RMB=> Duplicate.
Change the new branch name to Large

Deflection - Linear Matl
Highlight Solution Branch and turn Large

Deflection ON
The Project tree should look as shown in

figure to the right.
Execute a Solve on this new Solution
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Training Manual
After solution run is complete, open the Solution Information folder and scroll to near
the bottom of the output. Note the solution still solves in one substep, but 9 iterations
were made on the stiffness matrix during the run to account for large deflection effects.
Change Solution Output to Force Convergence to review the Newton-Raphson History.
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Training Manual
Review the large deflection analysis displacement and stress results and compare with the
first run. Note: Total Deformation is larger, but max equivalent stress is actually slightly
lower and in a different location then the linear run.
Extra Credit: To better understand the differences, try post processing x and y deflections
and equivalent strains separately for both runs. Note the dramatic increase in the y
deflections especially and the different distributions of strain energies.
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Highlight the Large Deflection- Linear Matl
Branch and duplicate this Branch with
RMB=> Duplicate.
Change the new branch name to Large

Deflection-NonLinear Matl
Add metal plasticity:
Highlight Geometry Solid branch
Activate Nonlinear material effects (YES)
RMB on Structural Steel
Select Edit Structural Steel
Select Add/Remove Properties
Activate Bilinear Isotropic Hardening

Plasticity
Training Manual
[OK]
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Click on the ICON to the right of Bilinear Isotropic Hardening
Define Yield Strength of 250Mpa and a Tangent Modulus of 10000Mpa.
Select Close Curve
Return to project tree

and execute a solve on
this latest Solution
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This last solution run can take up to two minutes depending on machine.
Review the Solution Convergence History as before.
It now takes 42 iterations in eight substeps, including two bisections.
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Review the displacement and stress results and compare with the large deflection run.
Note: Total Deformation is considerably larger and stresses come down due to the
dramatic loss of stiffness as part goes plastic.
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Add Equivalent Plastic Strain to the solution branch for a better picture of where most
of the yielding occurs.
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E. Solving Nonlinear Models
The solution options for nonlinear analyses are the same

for linear analyses. However, for large-deflection problems,
the user has an additional option of turning on Large
Deflection
Use of the Large Deflection option accounts for changes in the
geometry during the course of the analysis.
ANSYS Professional only supports large-deflection analyses
for surface or line bodies.
The Newton-Raphson method is employed in nonlinear
solutions (see next slides)
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Nonlinear Solution
Simulation automates nonlinear solutions by automatically

determining the number of load steps, substeps, and
equilibrium iterations
In this way, the user does not have to worry about these
settings. However, as will be shown later, it is very useful to
understand these concepts in dealing with nonlinear solutions
During the course of the analysis, if Simulation has trouble
converging, it will bisect the solution.
This means that Simulation will apply the load in smaller
increments (more substeps). This usually helps for difficult
problems since the response will be easier to converge if a smaller
load is applied. The final, total load will be solved for in the end.
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Nonlinear Solution
Training Manual
If Pretension Bolt Loads are present, there will be 2 load steps

For thermal-stress analyses, the thermal analysis is performed first
as a separate analysis. Hence, this part is not considered a load
step since it is a different type of analysis.
The initial number of substeps is usually set to 1

If frictional contact with a Friction Coefficient 0.2 is present, this
results in 5 initial substeps
The max number of equilibrium iterations is usually around 20

The type of contact will dictate the maximum number of equilibrium
iterations
If a substep cannot be converged within the specified number of
equilibrium iterations, Simulation will bisect the solution. It will
apply half of the current load and run equilibrium iterations again
to converge. Usually, this is repeated until 10% of the load is
applied. If the solution still does not converge, Simulation will stop
and produce an error message.
The number of load steps is usually set to 1
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Nonlinear Solution
Auto Time Stepping specifications can be changed within

Simulation in the Details of Solution Window:
Change Auto Time Stepping from Program Controlled to On
Manually define the initial, minimum and maximum values.
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Nonlinear Solution Output

Nonlinear solution output from the ANSYS solver
is requested with the Solution Information branch
When requested, the Solution Information branch
may be used to display Solver Output or Force
Convergence progress, among a number of other
options from the pull-down menu
The Update Interval allows users to specify (in seconds)
how frequency this output is updated
The Solver Output and Force Convergence provide details

on the nonlinear solution progress.
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Nonlinear Solver Output

Nonlinear solutions, especially those dealing with
frictionless or frictional contact, can be difficult to solve
During the solution, it is useful to become familiar with

reading the ANSYS solver output
In the Solution Information branch, informative messages
about the solution, solver, and contact settings are usually
printed first when solution is initiated
It may be useful to browse through the contact information (sample
below) to ensure that initial gaps or initial penetration is not very
large. If an initial gap is automatically closed, this will also be
printed in the output.
In this example, the initial penetration 7e-5 may be very small compared
to the dimensions of the model, so it can be ignored. These small values
of penetration or gaps may be caused by the mesh discretization.
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Training Manual
Note that for each equilibrium iteration, the residual forces (FORCE
CONVERGENCE VALUE) must be lower than the CRITERION
Ideally, the residual or out-of-balance forces should be zero for a
system to be in equilibrium. However, because of machine
precision and practical concerns, Simulation determines a value
small enough to result in negligible error. This value is the
CRITERION, and the FORCE CONVERGENCE VALUE must be
smaller than the CRITERION for the substep to be converged.
In the example below, after 3 equilibrium iterations, the residual
forces are lower than the criterion, so the solution is converged.
Informative messages (such as convergence or bisection) are
noted with >>> and <<< in the output.
As the nonlinear solution progresses, the equilibrium iteration

information is shown (sample below)
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By understanding how to read the solution output, potential

problems can be detected early on
In the contact output below, there are notes of initial
penetration and initial gaps.
One should always verify automatically-generated contact regions
The improper specification of contact may cause convergence
difficulties, so reading the contact output would be helpful in
determining if any contact region is problematic
Initial penetration/gaps are reported in active length units
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Training Manual
In the example below, the residual forces (FORCE CONVERGENCE

VALUE) initially decreases but then starts to increase dramatically.
In this situation, the user can abort the solution and check his/her
model to see what caused the high residual forces. Otherwise,
Simulation may continue for several more iterations (and even
bisect the solution) until it diverges, which would take longer.
Some causes of high residual forces include excessively large
loading (verify units), high contact stiffness (especially for thin,
bending-dominated behavior), or high friction coefficient values.
During the equilibrium iterations, reviewing the pattern of the

residual forces will help determine if a solution is diverging
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Training Manual
When contact status changes abruptly, this is just a warning

indicating that the contact elements enter or exit the pinball
region drastically. This may be due to parts sliding or separating
drastically if the load is too high. Simulation may automatically
bisect the solution, if necessary.
Element distortion messages are usually severe problems due to
excessive loading or over-constraints. Bisection of the load is
automatically performed, but sometimes corrective measures may
need to be taken to fix the problem.
Warning and error messages will also be printed in the output
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Nonlinear Force Convergence
The Solver Output option shows detailed text information.

If Solution Output is changed to Force Convergence,
the force convergence behavior is shown graphically:
Graphical Output
Text Output
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Nonlinear Force Convergence

The Force Convergence view shows what the force
criterion and residual forces (force convergence) are.
When the residual forces are less than the criterion, the
substep is assumed to be converged.
Additional useful features

include the fact that
converged substeps and
loadsteps are also indicated
on the chart with a green and
blue dotted line, respectively.
For this model, because
Pretension Bolt Loads are
present, it is a two-load step
analysis. Time is the same
as load step number in this
case. The current time is
1.2, so it is 20% complete
with the second load step.
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Results Tracker
Besides monitoring the out-of-balance forces, a
Results Tracker is available from the Solution
Information branch
The Results Tracker enables users to monitor
deformation at a vertex and/or contact region
information during the solution.
For Results Tracker > Deformation, select a
vertex of interest and specify whether x, y, or z
deformation is to be monitored.
For Results Tracker > Contact, a pull-down
menu enables users to select a contact region.
Then, the quantity to track (such as number of
contacting elements) can be displayed.
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Results Tracker
After the Results Tracker items are requested and solution

initiated, users may track the deformation or contact
results during the course of the solution.
In this example, the number of

contacting elements is
monitored for a particular
contact region. As is apparent
in the graph on right, between
Time=1.4 and 1.7, the number of
contacting elements jumps from
zero to 29. Since Time is a
placeholder in a nonlinear
static analysis, this means that,
after the first load step
(Time=1.0), between 40% and
70% of the load, contact is
established.
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Nonlinear Solution
It is the users responsibility to determine whether or not

large deformation effects are significant and need to be
considered.
Simulation has some basic checks after the solution, where if
the deformation is large compared to the overall geometry
size, the warning below will appear:
This, however, occurs for obvious, exaggerated cases. It does

not mean that if the warning does not appear in a linear
analysis that large deformation effects may not be significant.
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Newton-Raphson Residuals
As emphasized earlier, the Newton-Raphson method

employs multiple iterations until force equilibrium is
achieved. For debugging purposes, it may be useful to
request the Newton-Raphson Residuals (i.e., residual
forces) to see what locations have high residuals which
may be the cause of force equilibrium not being satisfied.
In the Solution Information details view, enter the number of
equilibrium iterations to retrieve Newton-Raphson Residuals.
For example, if 3 is entered, the residual forces from the last
three iterations will be returned if the solution is aborted or
does not converge.
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Newton-Raphson Residuals
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If a solution fails to converge

or is aborted by the user, the
requested number of
residuals will be available.
By looking at the residuals,
one can example at which
locations out-of-balance
forces are high. This helps
users identify possible
problematic locations, so
that corrective action may be
taken.
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After solution is stopped or fails to converge, residuals will be

available under the Solution Information branch, as shown
below.
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F. Reviewing Results
Requesting and reviewing results are similar to linear static

structural analyses
In large deformation problems, one usually should view the
deformation with Actual scaling from the Result toolbar
Any of the structural results may be requested, such as
Equivalent Stress, shown below
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Model shown is from a sample Unigraphics assembly.
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Reviewing Results - Equivalent Plastic Strain

If plasticity is defined, equivalent plastic strain can be
requested as output (example shown below)
Total equivalent strain is the sum of equivalent elastic and
equivalent plastic strain. Total equivalent strain is used to
correlate to the stress-strain curve.
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Reviewing Results
Animations of nonlinear solutions linearly increase from

zero to the final value
The actual load history is not accounted for in the animation
If Pretension Bolt Loads are present, only the second load
step (externally applied loads after adjustment) is animated, as
shown in the example below
This model has Pretension Bolt Loads
applied on the three bolts.
Although the solution consisted of two
load steps simulating the assembly
and loading processes, only the final
result is animated.
This final result is animated in a linear
fashion from zero to the final value.
The actual load history is not contained
in the animation (i.e., if multiple
substeps were solved for, they are not
included in the animation)
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Workshop 2B
Bolt Pretension with Contact
G. Workshop 2B Goals
Goal:
In this workshop our goal is to investigate the behavior of the pipe

clamp assembly (Pipe_clamp.x_t) shown here. Specifically we wish to
determine the crushing stress and deformation in a copper pipe
section when the bolt in the clamp is torqued down.
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. . . Workshop 2B Assumptions
Training Manual
We will assume the material used for the pipe is a copper alloy
while all other parts are steel.
It is assumed the clamp is torqued to 1000 N when placed in

service.
Well assume the coefficient of friction between the clamp and

pipe is 0.4. The other contact regions will be treated as either
bonded or no separation as shown in the accompanying figures.
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. . . Workshop 2B - Start Page

From the launcher start Simulation.
Choose Geometry > From File . . .

and browse to the file
Pipe_clamp.x_t.
When Workbench Simulation starts,

close the Template menu by clicking
the X in the corner of the window.
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. . . Workshop 2B Preprocessing
Change the working unit system to metric mm.
1. Units > Metric (mm, kg, MPa, C, s)
1.
Insert the material Copper Alloy from the material library.

2. Highlight the Part 2 in the geometry branch (pipe).
3. Click in the Material field and Import.
2.
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3.
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4. Select Copper Alloy material.
4.
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Training Manual
5. Expand the Contact branch and use the shift

key to highlight all contact definitions.
6. In the details window change the Formulation

to Augmented Lagrange.
5.
6.
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7. Highlight the first contact branch. This is the

definition for the pipe to clamp contact.
Training Manual
7.
8. In the detail for the definition change the Type to

Frictional.
9. Enter a value for Friction Coefficient of 0.4.
8.
9.
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10. Highlight the second contact branch. This is

the definition for the bolt shaft to clamp hole
contact.
Training Manual
10.
11. From the details window change the Type to

No Separation.
The remaining 2 contact regions will be

modeled using the default bonded type of
contact.
11.
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Create a local coordinate system along the
pipes axis. Note, we will use the local
coordinate system for post processing 12.
later.
12. Highlight the Model branch.

13. RMB > Insert > Coordinate Systems.
Notice the result is a new branch

Coordinate Systems appears in the tree.
Also, the Global Coordinate System is
automatically placed in the branch.
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13.
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With the Coordinate system branch highlighted:
14. Select the inside surface of the cylinder.

15. RMB > Insert > Coordinate System.
14.
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15.
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17. Click to Change in the Z Direction field to

change the systems orientation.
18. Select the inner surface of the pipe.
19. Apply in the detail window.
16. From the detail for the new coordinate system

change Type to Cylindrical.
Training Manual
16.
17.
18.
19.
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. . . Workshop 2B - Environment
Training Manual
21. Select one of the end surfaces of the pipe.

20.
22. RMB > Insert > Fixed Support.
21.
20. Highlight the Environment branch.
22.
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. . . Workshop 2B - Environment
Training Manual
23. Select the cylindrical face of the bolt

part.
23.
24. RMB > Insert > Bolt

25. In the detail for the pretension bolt load
enter a Preload value of 1000.
25.
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. . . Workshop 2B Solution Setup
Training Manual
27. RMB > Insert > Stress > Equivalent (von Mises).
26.
28. RMB > Insert > Deformation > Total.
27.
28.
26. Highlight the solution branch.
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29.
30. Select the pipe part.

30.
29. Switch to Body select mode.
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31. RMB > Insert > Deformation > Directional.
31.
32. From the detail for the Directional Deformation change to

Coordinate System.
32.
Note we allowed the default name Coordinate System to be used

when the local system was created. We could easily change the name
to a more meaningful one.
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34. Highlight the outer surface of the pipe.
35. RMB > Insert > Contact Tool > Pressure.
Repeat steps 34 and 35 inserting contact
Frictional Stress.
Solve
34.
33.
33. Switch to face select mode.
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. . . Workshop 2B Solution Notes
Training Manual
The solution for this workshop will take several minutes or more
depending on the available hardware.
The use of frictional contact triggers a nonlinear solution requiring

equilibrium iterations. The solution progress can be viewed by
inserting the Solution Information object.
The use of the pretension bolt load also causes 2 solutions to be run.
The first applies the pretension load and locks it down. The second
applies any remaining loads.
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. . . Workshop 2B - Results
Training Manual
Recall that the solution triggered the use of Weak Spring

stabilization. To insure that the weak springs are not the result of
rigid body motion, highlight the Environment branch and inspect
the weak spring reaction forces.
Here we can see that the reaction in the weak springs is of the
order e-5, a negligible value.
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Training Manual
Highlighting and plotting the Total Deformation for the assembly

shows the plot is not particularly useful for our goal (investigation
of pipes behavior).
The scoped result we placed in the solution branch will be more

instructive.
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Highlight and plot the result Directional Deformation.
In this case the result is scoped only to the pipe section. Also,
since we employed a local cylindrical system at the pipe axis,
the X direction here is displayed in the radial sense.
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Similarly, the behavior of the contact region can be view by

highlighting the contact result objects. Again the use of scoped
results allows a more intuitive plot of the quantity displayed.
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Chapter 2

Nonlinear Structural Analysis

The capabilities described in this section are generally

ANSYS Workbench Simulation

Nonlinear Structural Analysis

A. Background on Linear Analysis

In Chapter 4 of the Workbench Simulation Intro course,

Because [K] is assumed to be constant,

As shown on the figure on the right, if the

ANSYS Workbench Simulation

Nonlinear Structural Analysis

Background on Nonlinear Analysis

ANSYS Workbench Simulation

Nonlinear Structural Analysis

Background on Nonlinear Analysis

The resulting force vs. displacement curve

A nonlinear analysis is an iterative solution

ANSYS Workbench Simulation

In a nonlinear static analysis, the stiffness [K] is dependent

It is important to remember these assumptions related to

Nonlinear Structural Analysis

ANSYS Workbench Simulation

Nonlinear solutions require several iterations

Nonlinear Structural Analysis

ANSYS Workbench Simulation

It is useful to understand how loads are managed

Substeps apply the loads in an incremental fashion

Equilibrium iterations are the corrective

Nonlinear Structural Analysis

Background on Nonlinear Analysis

In Simulation, the following types of nonlinear static structural

Many more advanced nonlinear features are not available

These items can be added with Command Objects

ANSYS Workbench Simulation

Advanced time-history postprocessing

Nonlinear Structural Analysis

B. Nonlinear Analysis Setup

The procedure for nonlinear static analysis is very similar

Define Contact Options (if applicable)

ANSYS Workbench Simulation

Solve the Model

Nonlinear Structural Analysis

Geometry (Solid Bodies)

Solid bodies are supported for large-deflection analyses

ANSYS Workbench Simulation

Nonlinear Structural Analysis

Geometry (Line/Surface Bodies)

Note that ANSYS Professional does not support a combination

ANSYS Workbench Simulation

Nonlinear Structural Analysis

Solid Body Contact Options

All of the contact options available in linear static analyses

Solid Body Edge

Surface Body Face

Surface Body Edge

Solid Body Face

Solid Body Edge

Surface Body Face

Surface Body Edge

In general, face-to-face contact for solid bodies is the only

ANSYS Workbench Simulation

Nonlinear Structural Analysis