INTEGUMENT

ARY SYSTEM
BY:
INOCENCIA OSMEA AHMAD,
M.D.

 Made up of the skin (cutis, integument)

and its derivatives
SKIN
External covering of the body; largest organ
15% to 20% of the bodys total mass

2 MAIN LAYERS OF THE SKIN

EPIDERMIS
Derived from the ectoderm
composed of a keratinized stratified
squamous epithelium
grows continuously but maintains its
normal thickness by the process of
desquamation

2 MAIN LAYERS OF THE SKIN

DERMIS
derived from mesoderm
composed of a dense connective tissue
imparts mechanical support, strength,
and thickness to the skin

HYPODERMIS
contains variable amounts of adipose
tissue arranged into lobules separated
by connective tissue septa
lies deep to the dermis and is equivalent
to the subcutaneous fascia

EPIDERMAL DERIVATIVES (EPITHELIAL SKIN

APPENDAGES)
Hair follicles and hair
Sweat (sudoriferous) glands
Sebaceous glands
Nails
Mammary glands

MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN

acts as a barrier that protects against
physical, chemical, and biologic agents in
the external environment
Mechanical barrier, permeability barrier, ultraviolet
barrier

provides immunologic information

obtained during antigen processing to
the appropriate effector cells in the
lymphatic tissue
participates in homeostasis by regulating
body temperature and water loss

MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN

conveys sensory information about the external
environment to the nervous system
performs endocrine functions by secreting
hormones, cytokines, and growth factors and
converting precursor molecules into hormonally
active molecules (vitamin D)
functions in excretion through the exocrine
secretion of sweat, sebaceous, and apocrine glands
certain lipid-soluble substances may be absorbed
through the skin and this property is frequently
used to deliver therapeutic agents
nicotine, steroid hormones, and seasickness medications

CATEGORY OF SKIN
THICK SKIN
thicker epidermal layer than skin in any
other location and hairless
Areas subjected to most abrasion
Ex. palms of the hands and the soles of
the feet

CATEGORY OF SKIN
THIN SKIN

much thinner epidermis

contains hair follicles in all but a few locations

Thick and thin skin are misnomers cause they

only refer to the thickness of the epidermal
layer
Thickest skin is found on the upper portion of
the back due to its thick dermis but its
epidermis is comparable to thin skin

LAYERS OF THE SKIN

EPIDERMIS
composed of stratified squamous
epithelium in which four distinct layers
can be identified (thin skin)
In thick skin a fifth layer can be seen
From the deepest layer, they are as
follows:
Stratum
Stratum
Stratum
Stratum
Stratum

basale
spinosum
granulosum
lucidum
corneum

EPIDERMIS
Terminal differentiation of the epidermal
cells begins with the mitotic divisions of
the cells in the stratum basale =
specialized form of apoptosis
Cells in the stratum granulosum exhibit
typical apoptotic nuclear morphology,
including fragmentation of their DNA but
cellular fragmentation does not occur
cells become filled with filaments of the
intracellular protein keratin and are later
sloughed from the skin surface

EPIDERMIS
STRATUM BASALE
single layer of cells that rests on the basal
lamina
Contains stem cells which differentiates to
keratinocytes by mitotic division = also
called stratum germinativum
cells are small and cuboidal to low columnar
have less cytoplasm than the cells in the
layer above = nuclei are more closely
spaced

EPIDERMIS
STRATUM BASALE
Basophilic due to the closely spaced
nuclei and basophilic cytoplasm of the
cells
cells also contain various amounts of
melanin in the cytoplsm
exhibit extensive cell junctions
connected to each other and to keratinocytes
by desmosomes and to the underlying basal
lamina by hemidesmosomes

EPIDERMIS

STRATUM BASALE
The new keratinocytes moves into the
next layer (upward migration) until they
become mature keratinocytes and is
sloughed off at the surface

EPIDERMIS
STRATUM SPINOSUM
several cells thick
Keratinocytes are larger than those of
the stratum basale
exhibit numerous cytoplasmic processes
or spines which are attached to the
processes of adjacent cells by
desmosomes

EPIDERMIS
STRATUM SPINOSUM
desmosome appears as a slight thickening called
the node of Bizzozero
processes are usually conspicuous because
during tissue processing the cells shrink
increasing the intercellular space between the
spines
Cells in this layer are also called prickle cells due
to its appearance
As cells mature and move to the surface they
become larger and flattened parallel to the
surface

EPIDERMIS
STRATUM GRANULOSUM
most superficial layer of the
nonkeratinized portion of the epidermis
one to three cells thick
contain numerous keratohyalin granules
which contain cystine-rich and histidinerich proteins which are the precursors of
the protein filaggrin which aggregates
the keratin filaments present within the
cornified cells of the stratum corneum

EPIDERMIS
STRATUM LUCIDUM
considered a subdivision of the stratum corneum
by some histologists
seen in thick skin
often has a refractile appearance and may stain
poorly
contains eosinophilic cells in which the process of
keratinization is well advanced
nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles become
disrupted and disappear as the cell gradually fills
with keratin

EPIDERMIS
STRATUM CORNEUM
the most differentiated cells in the skin
No nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles
and become filled almost entirely with
keratin filaments
Extracellular layer of lipids coats the
plasma membrane forming the major
constituent of the water barrier in the
epidermis

EPIDERMIS
STRATUM CORNEUM
varies most in thickness, being thickest in
thick skin
thickness of this layer constitutes the
principal difference between the epidermis
of thick and thin skin
Becomes thicker at areas subjected to
unusual amounts of friction
formation of calluses on the palms of the hand
and on the fingertips

DERMIS
DERMAL PAPILLAE
fingerlike connective tissue protrusions
projecting into the undersurface of the
epidermis
EPIDERMAL RIDGES OR RETE RIDGES
epidermal protrusions that project into the
dermis and complements the dermal papillae
In areas where increased mechanical stress is
placed on the skin, the epidermal ridges are
much deeper (the epithelium is thicker), and
the dermal papillae are much longer and more
closely spaced

DERMIS
DERMAL RIDGES
Located besides the dermal papillae
form a distinctive pattern that is genetically
unique to each individual and is reflected in
the appearance of epidermal grooves and
ridges on the surface of the skin
basis of the science of dermatoglyphics, or
fingerprint and footprint identification

dermal ridges and papillae are most

prominent in the thick skin of the palmar
and plantar surfaces

DERMIS

hemidesmosomes link the intermediate

filaments of the cytoskeleton into the
basal lamina
focal adhesions anchors actin filaments
into the basal lamina

DERMIS
LAYERS OF THE DERMIS
papillary layer
more superficial layer
consists of loose connective tissue
immediately beneath the epidermis
collagen fibers are not as thick as those in the
deeper portion
collagen network contains predominately type
I and type III collagen molecules

DERMIS
LAYERS OF THE DERMIS
Papillary layer
elastic fibers are threadlike and form an
irregular network
relatively thin and includes the substance of the
dermal papillae and dermal ridges
contains blood vessels that serve but do not
enter the epidermis
contains nerve processes that either terminate
in the dermis or penetrate the basal lamina to
enter the epithelial compartment

DERMIS
LAYERS OF THE DERMIS
Reticular layer
lies deep to the papillary layer
thicker and less cellular than the papillary layer
Has thick, irregular bundles of mostly type I
collagen and by coarser elastic fibers
form regular lines of tension in the skin called
Langers lines
Incisions parallel to Langers lines heal with least
scarring

DERMIS
LAYERS OF THE DERMIS

Reticular layer
skin of the areolae, penis, scrotum, and
perineum, smooth muscle cells form a loose
plexus in the deepest parts of the reticular
layer = puckering of the skin at these sites,
particularly in erectile organs

HYPODERMIS/SUBCUTANEOUS FASCIA

Deep to the reticular layer

layer of adipose tissue (panniculus
adiposus) and loose connective tissue
serves as a major energy storage site
and also provides insulation

ARRECTOR PILI MUSCLES

Individual smooth muscle cells or small
bundles of smooth muscle cells
originating from the hypodermis
connect the deep part of hair follicles to
the more superficial dermis
produces the erection of hairs and
puckering of skin called goose flesh

PANNICULUS CARNOSUS
thin layer of striated muscle deep to the
subcutaneous fascia in most animals
vestigial in humans
well defined in the skin of the neck, face,
and scalp
constitutes the platysma muscle and the
other muscles of facial expression

CELLS OF THE EPIDERMIS

KERATINOCYTES
highly specialized epithelial cells
Specific function: Separation of the
organism from its external environment
Predominant cell type of the epidermis
originating from the stratum basale
produce keratins (cytokeratins), major
heteropolymeric structural proteins of the
epidermis
form intermediate filaments; 85% of fully
differentiated keratinocytes

KERATINOCYTES
participate in the formation of the epidermal
water barrier
cytoplasm of immature keratinocytes appears
basophilic in histologic sections because of
the large number of free ribosomes
synthesis of keratins later assembles as keratin
filaments (intermediate filaments) commonly called
tonofilaments

In the stratum basale the tonofilaments are

grouped into bundles thick enough to be seen
in the light microscope and are called
tonofibrils making the cytoplasm eosinophilic

KERATINOCYTES
Upper part of stratum spinosum
keratohyaline granules are synthesized by
keratinocytes and are the distinctive
feature of the cells in stratum granulosum
Keratohyalin granules contain the two
major intermediate filamentassociated
proteins, filaggrin and trichohyalin
clinical marker for the initiation of the final
stage of apoptosis
appearance of the granules and expression of
filaggrin in the keratinocytes

KERATINOCYTES
When Filaggrin and trichohyalin are
released, they promote the aggregation
of keratin filaments into tonofibrils
initiating keratinization
Keratinization
conversion of granular cells into cornified cells
occurs in 2 to 6 hours, the time it takes for the
cells to leave the stratum granulosum and
enter the stratum corneum
Keratin fibril formed is soft keratin
Hard keratin is found in nails and hair

KERATINOCYTES
Keratinized cells does not have any
nucleus and organelles and the plasma
membrane is thick; pH decreases from pH
7.17 to pH 4.5 to 6
continuous exfoliation of surface
keratinocytes is a regulated proteolytic
process that involves degradation of the
cells desmosomes
kallikrein-related serine peptidases such
as KLK5, KLK7, and KLK14 cause cleavage
of desmosomes in a pH-dependent manner

KERATINOCYTES
lymphoepithelial Kazal-type inhibitor (LEKTI)
physiological serine protease inhibitor
In neutral pH , it inhibits KLKs preventing
desmosomal cleavage
Prograssively releases KLKs at lower pH allowing
degradation of desmosomes and the release of the
keratinocytes

Netherton syndrome
Rare genetic disorder associated with a defective
SPINK5 gene
SPINK5 = serine protease inhibitor Kazal-type 5
(gene encoding LEKTI)
decreased skin barrier function, generalized
redness of the skin (erythroderma), and scaling

KERATINOCYTES
LAMELLAR BODIES
membrane-coating granules
Produced by cells in the stratum
spinosum as they begin to produce
keratohyalin granules
tubular or ovoid-shaped membranebound organelles
Assembled in the golgi apparatus

KERATINOCYTES
LAMELLAR BODIES
Produced by the spinous and granular
cells as a mixture of probarrier lipids and
their respective lipid-processing
enzymes
glycosphingolipids, phospholipids, ceramides,
acidic sphingomyelinase, and secretory
phospholipase A2

Also contains proteases

SC chymotryptic enzyme, cathepsin D, acid
phosphatase, glycosidases, protease
inhibitors

KERATINOCYTES
LAMELLAR BODIES
Contents are inside granules which are
released into the intercellular spaces
between the stratum granulosum and
stratum corneum
intercellular lipid lamellae is responsible for
the formation of the epidermal water barrier
Are also involved in formation of the
cornified envelope, desquamation of
cornified cells, and antimicrobial defenses in
the skin

KERATINOCYTES
EPIDERMAL WATER BARRIER
essential for mammalian dry epithelia
established primarily by two factors
deposition of insoluble proteins on the inner
surface of the plasma membrane
lipid layer that is attached to the outer
surface of the plasma membrane

KERATINOCYTES
EPIDERMAL WATER BARRIER
Two structural elements:
cell envelope (CE)
15-nm-thick layer of insoluble proteins
deposited on the inner surface of the plasma
membrane
contributes to the strong mechanical
properties of the barrier
thickness of the CE increases in epithelia
that are subject to considerable mechanical
stress (lip, palm of the hand, sole of the foot)

KERATINOCYTES
EPIDERMAL WATER BARRIER
Two structural elements:
cell envelope (CE)
formed by cross-linking small prolinerich
(SPR) proteins and larger structural proteins
(cystatin, desmosomal proteins
[desmoplakin], elafin, envoplakin, filaggrin,
involucrin, five different keratin chains, and
loricrin)
Loricrin = insoluble; major structural
protein; 80% of the total CE protein mass;
has the highest glycine content of any
known protein in the body

KERATINOCYTES
EPIDERMAL WATER BARRIER
Two structural elements:
lipid envelope
5-nm-thick layer of lipids attached to the
cell surface by ester bonds
major lipid components of the lipid envelope
ceramides, which belong to the class of
sphingolipids; also play an important role in
cell signaling; partially responsible for
inducing cell differentiation, triggering
apoptosis, and reducing cell proliferation
Cholesterol
Free fatty acids

KERATINOCYTES
EPIDERMAL WATER BARRIER
Two structural elements:
lipid envelope
most important component is the
monomolecular layer of
acylglucosylceramide
provides a Teflon-like coating on the cell
surface

MELANOCYTES
melanocyte precursor cells
Migrate from the neural crest to the
developing epidermis

epidermal-melanin unit
one melanocyte maintains an association with
a given number of keratinocytes

follicular bulge
Found in adults
pool of undifferentiated melanocyte stem cells
residing in the area of the hair follicle

MELANOCYTES
Pax3 gene
belongs to the paired box (PAX) family of
transcription factors
Its expression regulates the differentiation of
the melanocyte stem cell
Pax3 = activates expression of the
microphthalmia transcription factor (MITF),
which is critical for the development and
differentiation of melanocytes
(melanogenesis)

MELANOCYTES
Dendritic cell scattered among the cells
of stratum basale
Called dendritic cells since the rounded cell
body resides in the basal layer and extends
long processes between the keratinocytes of
stratum spinosum

Does not have desmosomal attachments

with neighboring keratinocytes
Those that are close to the basal lamina
have structures resembling
hemidesmosomes

MELANOCYTES
ratio of melanocytes to keratinocytes or
their precursors in the basal layer ranges
from 1:4 to 1:10 and is constant in all
races
In H&E staining = melanocytes in the
stratum basale have elongated nuclei
with clear cytoplasm
TEM = identified by the developing and
mature melanin granules in the cytoplasm

MELANOCYTES
capacity to replicate throughout their life
but slower than keratinocytes
maintaining the epidermal-melanin unit
produce and secrete the pigment
melanin
most important function of melanin is to
protect the organism against the
damaging effects of nonionizing
ultraviolet irradiation

MELANOCYTES
PRODUCTION OF MELANIN
Tyrosine is oxidized to 3,4dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) by
tyrosinase
DOPA is transformed to melanin
Occur in membrane bound structures
called premelanosomes derived from the
golgi apparatus

MELANOCYTES
Premelanosomes and the early melanosomes
have low melanin content
Melanosomes are mature melanin granules
Premelanosomes are concentrated near the
Golgi apparatus
Nearly mature melanosomes are found at
the bases of the cell processes
Mature melanosomes are found in and at the
ends of the processes

MELANOCYTES

PIGMENT DONATION
Process of transferring melanin contents
to neighboring keratinocytes by
phagocytosis of the tips of the
melanocyte processes by keratinocytes
Type of cytocrine secretion because a small
amount of cytoplasm surrounding the
melanosome is also phagocytosed

LANGERHANS CELL
dendritic-appearing, antigen-presenting
cells in the epidermis
Antigen is phagocytised, processed and
displayed on its surface then migrates to a
regional lymph node it interacts with T
lymphocytes

from common lymphoid progenitor (CLP)

cells in bone marrow
encounter and process antigens entering
through the skin
part of the mononuclear phagocytotic system

LANGERHANS CELL
do not form desmosomes with
neighboring keratinocytes
Cannot be distinguished in H&E staining;
nucleus stains heavily with hematoxylin
and cytoplasm is clear
Special techniques = gold chloride
impregnation, immunostaining with
antibody against CD 1a molecules
Readily seen in stratum spinosum

LANGERHANS CELL
Possess dendritic processes
nucleus is characteristically indented
possesses characteristic, tennis racquet
shaped Birbeck granules
small vesicles, which appear as rods with a
bulbous expansion at their end

Expresses both MHC I and MHC II

molecules as well as Fc receptors for IgG

LANGERHANS CELL
Also expresses C3b receptors and
fluctuating quantities of CD 1a molecules
Involved in delayed-type hypersensitivity
reactions (contact allergic dermatitis and
other cell-mediated immune responses in
the skin)
Also contains HIV virus in their cytoplasm
in AIDS and AIDS related complexes

LANGERHANS CELL
More resistant than T lymphocyte to the
deadly effects of HIV and can be a
reservoir for the virus
malignant transformation is responsible
for histiocytosis X (Langerhans cell
histiocytosis)
group of immune diseases that are
characterized by abnormal increase and spread
of Langerhans cells
Accumulation may form tumors found in various
parts of the body including bones, lungs, skull

MERKELS CELLS
dendritic cells located in the stratum
basale
Origin is unknown
Possess antigenic markers of both
epidermal and neural type
Most abundant in skin where sensory
perception is acute such as the fingertips

MERKELS CELLS
bound to adjoining keratinocytes by
desmosomes and contain intermediate
(keratin) filaments in their cytoplasm
nucleus is lobed; cytoplasm is somewhat
denser than that of melanocytes and
Langerhans cells
may contain some melanosomes in their
cytoplasm

MERKELS CELLS
best characterized by the presence of 80-nm
dense-cored neurosecretory granules that
resemble those found in the adrenal medulla
and carotid body
closely associated with the expanded terminal
bulb of afferent myelinated nerve fibers
penetrates the basal lamina, expands into a disc or
platelike ending that lies in close apposition to the
base of the Merkels cell

Merkels corpuscle
sensitive mechanoreceptor
combination of the neuron and epidermal cell

MERKELS CELLS
MERKEL CELL CARCINOMA (MCC)
rare but highly aggressive type of skin
cancer
develops when Merkel cells undergo
uncontrolled proliferation
starts most often in areas of skin exposed
to the sun, such as the head, neck, and
upper and lower limbs
tends to grow quickly and to metastasize
via lymph vessels at an early stage

NERVE SUPPLY

 endowed with sensory receptors of

various types that are peripheral
terminals of sensory nerves
also well supplied with motor nerve
endings to the blood vessels, arrector pili
muscles, and sweat glands

FREE NERVE ENDINGS

terminate in the stratum granulosum
FREE because they lack connective
tissue or Schwann cell investment
subserve multiple sensory modalities
including fine touch, heat, and cold
surround most hair follicles and attach to
their outer root sheath
sensitive to hair movement and serve as
mechanoreceptors

ENCAPSULATED NERVE ENDINGS

PACINIAN CORPUSCLES
detect pressure changes and vibrations
applied on the skin surface
deep pressure receptors for mechanical
and vibratory pressure
large ovoid structures

ENCAPSULATED NERVE ENDINGS

PACINIAN CORPUSCLES
Found in the following:
deeper dermis and hypodermis (especially in
the fingertips)
connective tissue in general
in association with joints, periosteum, and
internal organs

Measure more than 1 mm along their long

axis
Composed of a myelinated nerve ending
surrounded by a capsule structure

ENCAPSULATED NERVE ENDINGS

PACINIAN CORPUSCLES
inner core is made up of tightly packed,
flattened Schwann cell lamellae
Outer core is formed by a series of
concentric lamellae
Each lamella is separated from its neighbor
by a narrow space containing lymphlike
fluid
Resembles the cut surface of a hemisected
onion

ENCAPSULATED NERVE ENDINGS

PACINIAN CORPUSCLES
Each lamella is composed of flattened
cells that correspond to the cells of the
endoneurium outside the capsule
Sparse collagen fibrils and occasional
capillaries are also present in between
the lamellae
respond to pressure and vibration
through the displacement of the capsule
lamellae = depolarizes the axon

ENCAPSULATED NERVE ENDINGS

MEISSNERS CORPUSCLES
responsible for sensitivity to light touch
localized within dermal papillae and serve
as touch receptors and particularly
responsive to lowfrequency stimuli in the
papillary layer of hairless skin (lips and the
palmar and volar surfaces, particularly
those of the fingers and toes)
tapered cylinders that measure about 150
m along their long axis and are oriented
perpendicular to the skin surface

ENCAPSULATED NERVE ENDINGS

MEISSNERS CORPUSCLES
Within these receptors, one or two
unmyelinated endings of myelinated nerve
fibers follow spiral paths in the corpuscle
cellular component consists of flattened
Schwann cells that form several irregular
lamellae
Saggital sections H&E staining =
resembles a loose, twisted skein of wool
due to Schwann cells

ENCAPSULATED NERVE ENDINGS

RUFFINIS CORPUSCLES
sensitive to skin stretch and torque
respond to mechanical displacement of
adjacent collagen fibers
simplest encapsulated mechanoreceptors
elongated fusiform shape and measure 1
to 2 m in length

ENCAPSULATED NERVE ENDINGS

RUFFINIS CORPUSCLES
consist of a thin connective tissue capsule that
encloses a fluid-filled space
consists of a single myelinated fiber that enters the
capsule, where it loses its myelin sheath and
branches to form a dense arborization of fine axonal
endings, each terminating in a small knoblike bulb
axonal endings are dispersed and intertwined inside
the capsule
functionally belong to the family of rapidly adapting
receptors (phasic receptors) that generate short
action potentials at the beginning and end of a
stimulus

EPIDERMAL SKIN
APPENDAGES

 derived from downgrowths of epidermal

epithelium during development
Consists of the following:
Hair follicles and their product, hair
Sebaceous glands and their product, sebum
Eccrine sweat glands and their product, sweat
Apocrine sweat glands and their mixed
product containing a form of sweat with a high
concentration of carbohydrates, lipids, and
proteins

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

Each hair follicle represents an
invagination of the epidermis in which a
hair is formed
present over almost the entire body
absent only from the sides and palmar
surfaces of the hands, sides, and plantar
surfaces of the feet, the lips, and the
region around the urogenital orifices
Hair distribution is influenced by sex
hormones

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

HAIR FOLLICLE
responsible for the production and
growth of a hair
Color of the hair is due to the content
and type of melanin
Histologic appearance varies whether it
is in the growing or resting phase

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

3 SEGMENTS OF THE HAIR FOLLICLE
INFUNDIBULUM
extends from the surface opening of the
follicle to the level of the opening of its
sebaceous gland
part of the pilosebaceous canal = route for the
discharge of the oily substance sebum

ISTHMUS
extends from the infundibulum to the level of
insertion of the arrector pili muscle

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

3 SEGMENTS OF THE HAIR FOLLICLE
INFERIOR SEGMENT
In the growing follicle = nearly uniform
diameter except at its base, where it
expands to form the bulb
base of the bulb is invaginated by a tuft
of vascularized loose connective tissue
called dermal papilla

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

MATRIX
Other cells forming the bulb, including those
that surround the connective tissue papilla
consists simply of matrix cells
cells immediately adjacent to the dermal
papilla represent the germinative layer of
the follicle
Division and proliferation accounts for the growth
of the hair
Scattered melanocytes are also present;
contribute melanosomes to the developing hair
cells

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

MATRIX
dividing matrix cells in the germinative
layer differentiate into the keratinproducing cells of the hair and the
internal root sheath
multilayered cellular covering that surrounds
the deep part of the hair

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

3 LAYERS OF INTERNAL ROOT SHEATH
Cuticle
squamous cells whose outer free surface faces
the hair shaft

Huxleys layer
single or double layer of flattened cells that form
the middle plate of the internal root sheath

Henles layer
outer single layer of cuboidal cells
in direct contact with the outermost part of the
hair follicle = downgrowth of the epidermis = the
external root sheath

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

EXTERNAL ROOT SHEATH
Progress upwards and reveals the
insertion site of the arrector pili muscle
and the origin of the sebaceous gland
and gland from the wall of the follicular
canal
Can find aggregate of relatively
undifferentiated epithelial cells called
the follicular bulge which is a niche of
epidermal stem (ES) cells

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

EPIDERMAL STEM CELLS
responsible for providing stem cells for the
growth of hair follicles (the internal root sheath,
cortex, and medulla) as well as sebaceous glands
do not contribute to the population of the basal
stem cells of the epidermis
when the epidermis is injured or lost (such as in
extensive skin burns and superficial skin
wounds), the ES cells become reprogrammed,
migrate toward the wound surface from their
follicular niches, and participate in the initial
resurfacing of the wound

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

HAIR
composed of keratinized cells that
develop from hair follicles
keratogenous zone
Where hair and internal root sheath are
keratinized after leaving the matrix

Hard keratin
seen in hair as it emerges from the follicle

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

HAIR
Soft keratin
Seen in internal root sheath
does not emerge from the follicle with the hair
but is broken down at about the isthmus level
where sebaceous secretions enter the follicle

Glassy membrane
Thick basal lamina that separates the hair
follicle from the dermis

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

HAIR
Dense irregular connective tissue sheath
containing follicular bulge surrounds the
follicle
arrector pili muscle
Attached to follicular bulge

hair shaft contains melanin pigment

produced by melanocytes present in the
germinative layer of the hair bulb

HAIR FOLLICLES AND HAIR

3 LAYERS OF HAIR
Medulla
central part of the shaft and contains large
vacuolated cells
present only in thick hairs

Cortex
located peripherally to the medulla and contains
cuboidal cells
undergo differentiation into keratin-filled cells

cuticle of the hair shaft

contains squamous cells that form the outermost
layer of the hair

SEBACEOUS GLANDS
develop as outgrowths of the external root
sheath of the hair follicle, usually
producing several glands per follicle
produces an oily substance called sebum
by holocrine secretion
Cell undergoes apoptosis as it fills up with
the product
Secretory product and cell debris are
discharged into the infundibulum of the
hair follicle as sebum

SEBACEOUS GLANDS
Pilosebaceous canal
Infundibulum of the hair follicle with the short duct
of the gland

New cells are produced by mitosis of the

basal cells at the periphery of the gland and
linked by desmosomes
Basal lamina is continuous with that of the
epidermis and the hair follicle
process of sebum production from the time of
basal cell mitosis to the secretion of the
sebum takes about 8 days

SWEAT GLAND
classified on the bases of their structure
and the nature of their secretion
ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
distributed over the entire body surface
except for the lips and part of the
external genitalia
not associated with the hair follicle
arises as a downgrowth from the fetal
epidermis

SWEAT GLAND
ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
Arranged as a blind-ended, simple, coiled
tubular structure
2 SEGMENTS:
secretory segment = deep in the dermis or in
the upper part of the hypodermis
duct segment = less coiled; leads to the
epidermal surface

SWEAT GLAND
ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
play a major role in temperature regulation
through the cooling that results from the
evaporation of water from sweat on the body
surface
Secretory portion of the glands produces a
secretion similar in composition to an
ultrafiltrate of blood
Secretion is hypotonic watery solution (sweat)
low in protein and contains varying amounts
of sodium chloride, urea, uric acid, and
ammonia

SWEAT GLAND
ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
also serves, in part, as an excretory
organ
Excessive sweating = loss of electrolytes
(potassium and magnesium) and water
thermoregulatory sweating
first occurs on the forehead and scalp,
extends to the face and to the rest of the
body, and occurs last on the palms and soles
Control is cholinergic

SWEAT GLAND
ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
Emotional stress = palms, soles, and
axillae are the first surfaces to sweat
may be stimulated by adrenergic portions of
the sympathetic division of the autonomic
nervous system

3 cell types of secretory segment

Clear cells
abundant glycogen
produce the watery component of sweat

SWEAT GLAND
ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
3 cell types of the secretory segment
Dark cells
characterized by abundant rER and secretory
granules and large golgi apparatus
Secretes glycoprotein
Myoepithelial cells
limited to the basal aspect of the secretory segment
lie between the secretory cells, with their processes
oriented transversally to the tubule
cytoplasm contains numerous contractile filaments
(actin)
Contraction is responsiblefor rapid expression of
sweat from the gland

SWEAT GLAND
ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
Duct segment
composed of stratified cuboidal epithelium,
consisting of a basal cell layer and a luminal cell layer
smaller and appear darker than the cells of the
secretory portion of the gland
smaller diameter than the secretory portion
does not possess myoepithelial cells
basal or peripheral cells = rounded or ovoid nucleus
and contain a prominent nucleolus

SWEAT GLAND
ECCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
Duct segment
Apical or luminal cells are smaller than the
basal cells, but their nuclei are similar in
appearance
most conspicuous feature of the luminal cells
= deeply stained, glassy (hyalinized)
appearance of the apical cytoplasm due to the
presence of large numbers of aggregated
tonofilaments in the apical cytoplasm

SWEAT GLAND
APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
large-lumen coiled tubular glands
associated with hair follicles
develop from the same downgrowths of
epidermis that give rise to hair follicles
Connected to the follicle thus the
secretion enters the follicle; located just
above the entry of the sebaceouis duct

SWEAT GLAND
APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
secretory portion of the gland is located
deep in the dermis or, more commonly, in
the upper region of the hypodermis
Secretory portion
Wider lumen than that of eccrine glands and is
composed of a single cell type
store their secretory product in the lumen

SWEAT GLAND
APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
Secretory portion
apical part of the cell often exhibits a bleblike
protrusion
secretion is a merocrine type
Cell has numerous lysosomes and lipofuscin
pigment granules, and numerous mitochondria
Myoepithelial cells are also present between
the secretory cells and the adjacent basal
lamina

SWEAT GLAND
APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
Duct portion
similar to that of the eccrine duct; it has a narrow
lumen
Continues from the secretory portion of the gland in
a relatively straight path to empty into the follicle
canal
Resorption does not take place in the apocrine duct
stratified cuboidal, usually two but sometimes three
cell layers thick
Apical cytoplasm is hyalinized due to tonofilaments

SWEAT GLAND
APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
Secretion contains protein, carbohydrate,
ammonia, lipid, and certain organic
compounds that may color the secretion
Secretion is milky and slightly viscous in
the axilla
When secreted, fluid is odorless but
develops an acrid odor due to bacterial
action on the surface

SWEAT GLAND
APOCRINE SWEAT GLANDS
become functional at puberty and development
depends on the sex hormones
believed that apocrine secretions may function as
pheromones in humans
Male pheromones (androstenol and androstenone)
in the secretion of apocrine glands have a direct
effect on the female menstruation cycle
female pheromones (copulins) influence male
perception of females and may also induce
hormonal changes in males

SWEAT GLAND
INNERVATION OF SWEAT GLANDS
innervated by the sympathetic portion of
the autonomic nervous system
Eccrine sweat glands are stimulated by
cholinergic transmitters
apocrine glands are stimulated by
adrenergic transmitters

SWEAT GLAND
INNERVATION OF SWEAT GLANDS
Eccrine glands respond to heat and
stress
Apocrine glands respond to emotional
and sensory stimuli but not to heat

NAIL
plates of keratinized cells containing
hard keratin
slightly arched fingernails and toenails,
more properly referred to as nail plates,
rest on nail beds
NAIL BED
Consists of epithelial cells that are
continuous with the stratum basale and
stratum spinosum of the epidermis

NAIL
NAIL ROOT
proximal part of the nail
buried in a fold of epidermis and covers the
cells of the germinative zone, or matrix
GERMINATIVE ZONE OR MATRIX
Contains stem cells, epithelial cells,
melanocytes, Merkels cells, and
Langerhans cells
Stem cells regularly divide, migrate toward
the root of the nail and differentiate and
produce keratin of the nail

NAIL
As the nail plate grows, it moves over the
nail bed
nail plate contains closely packed
interdigitating corneocytes lacking nuclei
and organelles
LUNULA
crescent-shaped white area near the root of
the nail
color from the thick, opaque layer of partially
keratinized matrix cells in this region

NAIL
EPONYCHIUM, OR CUTICLE
edge of the skin fold covering the root of
the nail
composed of hard keratin; therefore, it
does not desquamate
HYPONYCHIUM
thickened epidermal layer that secures
the free edge of the nail plate at the
fingertip

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