Introduction to

engineering
Dr. Yan Liu
Department of Biomedical, Industrial and Human Factors Engineering
Wright State University

Engineering Versus Science

Scientists

Understand why our world behaves the way it does (laws of nature)
Study the world as it is
Thinkers

Engineers

Apply established scientific theories and principles to develop cost-effective

solutions to practical problems

Cost effective
Consideration of design trade-offs (esp. resource usage)
Minimize negative impacts (e.g. environmental and social cost)
Practical problems
Problems that matter to people

Change the world

Doers
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ABETs Definition of Engineering

ABET (The Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology )

Recognized in the United States as the sole agency responsible for accreditation
of educational programs leading to degrees in engineering

Engineering is the profession in which a knowledge of the

mathematical and natural sciences, gained by study, experience, and
practice, is applied with judgment to develop ways to utilize,
economically, the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of
[hu]mankind

Engineering Disciplines

Major Disciplines

Mechanical engineering
Electrical engineering
Civil engineering
Chemical engineering
Industrial engineering
Computer engineering

A subspecialty within electrical engineering at many institutions

Specialized, Non-Traditional Fields

Aerospace engineering
Materials engineering
Biomedical engineering
Nuclear engineering
etc.
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Electrical/Computer Engineering (ECE)

Largest of All Engineering Disciplines

About 353,000 or 26% (out of 1.4 million engineers) were electrical and
computer engineers (U.S. Department of Labor Statistics in 2005)

Concerned with electrical devices and systems and with the use of
electrical energy
Specialties

Electronics
Design of circuits and electric devices to produce, process, and detect
electrical signals
Communications
A broad spectrum of applications from consumer entertainment to military
radar

Electrical/Computer Engineering (ECE)

Specialties (Cont.)

Power
Generation, transmission, and distribution of electric power

Conventional generation systems (e.g. hydroelectric, steam, and nuclear)

Alternative generation systems (e.g. solar, wind, fuel cells)

Controls
Design of systems that control automated operations and processes
Instrumentation
Use of electronic devices to measure parameters (e.g. pressure, temperature,
flow rate, speed, etc)
Processing, storing, and transmitting the collected data

Mechanical Engineering

Second Largest Engineering Discipline

About 221,000 or 16% (out of 1.4 million engineers) were mechanical

engineers (U.S. Department of Labor Statistics in 2005)

Concerned with designing tools, engines, machines, and other

mechanical equipment
Areas

Energy
Production and transfer of energy and conversion of energy from one form
to another
Structures and motion in mechanical systems
Design of transportation vehicles, manufacturing machines, office machines,
etc.
Manufacturing
Design and build requisite equipment and tools to convert raw materials into
final products
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Industrial Engineering

Industrial Engineering is concerned with the design, improvement,

and installation of integrated systems of people, material, information,
equipment, and energy. It draws upon specialized knowledge and skill
in the mathematical, physical, and social sciences together with the
principles and methods of engineering analysis and design to specify,
predict, and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems
(IIE (Institution of Industrial Engineering), 1985)
Also known as systems engineering, production engineering,
operations management
Fields

Operations research
Human factors
Quality control
etc.

Industrial Engineering

Operations Research

Uses methods like mathematical modeling, statistics, and algorithms to arrive at

optimal or good decisions in complex problems

Human Factors (or Ergonomics)

Application of scientific information concerning humans to the design of

objects, systems and environment for human use (IEA (International
Ergonomics Association), 2007)
Physical human factors

Cognitive human factors

Deals with the human body's responses to physical and physiological stress
Mental processes (e.g. perception, attention, cognition, motor control, and memory
storage and retrieval) as they affect interactions among humans and other elements
of a system

Organizational human factors (macroergonomics)

The optimization of socio-technical systems, including their organizational

structures, policies, and processes
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Industrial Engineering

Quality Control

Ensure products or services are designed and produced to meet or exceed

customer requirements

Similarity to Other Engineering Disciplines

Trained in the same basic ways as other engineers

Take foundation courses in mathematics, physics, chemistry, humanities, and social

sciences

Difference from Other Engineering Disciplines

Emphasis on both people and technology

Focuses on how people interact with a system

Concern for the human element leads to system designs that enhance the quality of
life for all people

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Design

Wikipedia Definition

Process of originating and developing a plan for a product, structure, system, or

component

Achieve Goals with Constraints

Goals

Constraints

Material, cost, time, regulation, etc.

Trade-off

The purposes of the design

What is for? Who is it for? Why do they want it?

Which goals or constraints can be relaxed so that others can be met

Understand the Material

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A chair with a steel frame and a chair with a wooden frame are quite
different. Often the steel frames are tabular or thin L or H section
steel, whereas wooden chairs have thick solid legs.
Why? What would happen if a wooden chair were made using the
design for a metal one and vice versa?

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To design a system that involves humans, we have to

understand humans, their physiological, psychological
and social aspects and how they interact with the other
components of the system

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Bad Design (1)

Whats wrong with the design of this knife?
Although you can tell which end is the handle and which
end is the blade, it isn't clear which side of the blade cuts

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Bad Design (2)

Whats wrong with the design of this stove?
It is difficult to tell which control goes with
which burner

Good design
Arrange the controls in the same configuration as
the burners. It is quite easy to tell which burner
goes with which control
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Bad Design (3)

Whats wrong with the design of this Boombox?
People generally expect the controls for
a device to be on or close to the device.
In this example, the CD buttons should
be put next to the CD player and the tape
buttons should be put next to the tape
player.

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Good Design (1)

Fun, educational, self-explanatory

LeapFrog's "Twist and shout multiplication"

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Good Design (2)

Simple, elegant, easy to use, easy to clean

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How to Make Good Design

Recognize that systems are built for users and thus must be designed
for the users
Recognize individual differences
Recognize that the design of things and procedures can influence
human behavior and well-being
Emphasize empirical data & evaluation
Rely on scientific method
Recognize that things, procedures, environments, and people do not
exist in isolation

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What Is NOT Good Design

NOT just applying checklists and guidelines

NOT using oneself as the model user

These can help, but user-centered design (UCD) is a design philosophy and
process
Know your real users; recognize variation in humans

NOT just common sense

e.g. a picture is worth a thousand words does not always hold

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QWERTY Keyboard

Layout

QWERTY are first six letters at the top row of alphabetical keys
The layout of the digits and letters is generally fixed except a few variations in
some nations keyboards
e.g. French keyboards interchange both "Q" and "W" with "A" and "Z", and
move "M" to the right of "L"
Non-alphanumeric keys vary
e.g. There is a difference between key assignments on British and American
keyboards

Above 2 and 3 on the UK keyboard are the <> and <>, respectively, whereas
<@> and <#> are on the USA keyboard

The placement of brackets, backslashes and such like vary

Not optimal for typing

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French keyboard

US keyboard

UK keyboard

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Dvorak Keyboard

An alternative standard keyboard layout to QWERTY, patented in

1936 by August Dvorak and William Dealey
Designed to address the problems of inefficiency and fatigue that
characterized the QWERTY keyboard layout

Speed improvement of 10% ~ 15%

Reduction in user fatigue due to the increased ergonomic layout of the keyboard

Has failed to replace QWERTY standard

Currently, all major operating systems (e.g. Apple OS X, Microsoft
Windows, GNU/Linux) can ship the Dvorak keyboard layout in
addition to the QWERTY layout

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Dvorak Keyboard

Ergonomics Principles of the Design

It is easier to type letters alternating between hands

For maximum speed and efficiency, the most common letters should be the
easiest to type. This means that they should be on the home row, the center row
of alphabetical letters on a keyboard, which is where the fingers rest and under
the strongest fingers
The least common letters should be on the bottom row, which is the hardest row
to reach
The right hand should do more of the typing, because most people are righthanded
Stroking should generally move from the edges of the board to the middle. An
observation of this principle is that, for many people, when tapping fingers on a
table, it is easier going from little finger to index than vice versa

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Dvorak Keyboard Layout

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Chord Keyboard

Only a few keys are used

Allow users to enter characters or commands formed by pressing
several keys together, like playing a chord on a piano (illustration)
Advantages

Extremely compact and thus can be built into a device (e.g. a pocket-sized
computer) that is too small to contain a normal sized keyboard
A large number of combinations available from a small number of keys allows
text or commands to be entered with one hand, leaving the other hand free to do
something else

Disadvantages

Lack of familiarity
Cannot be used by a "hunt and peck" method, so their use is restricted to
applications where additional training can be justified
Hunt and peck typing (or two-fingered typing) is a common form of typing,
in which the typist must find and press each key individually
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 12 keys, so more than 4000 combinations are

potentially possible
User can set up key combinations as macros
for longer strings of text

Twiddler2 Developed by Handykey Corp.

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Usability

Concerned with making systems easy to learn and use

A Usable System is

Easy to learn
Easy to remember how to use
Effective to use
Efficient to use
Safe to use
Enjoyable to use

Why is Usability Important

Many everyday systems and products seem to be designed with little regard to
usability, which leads to frustration, wasted time and errors
Examples of interactive products:
mobile phone, computer, personal organizer, remote control, soft drink machine,
coffee machine, ATM, ticket machine, library information system, the web,
photocopier, watch, printer, stereo, calculator, videogame etc.
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The photocopier in our college has buttons like these on its control panels

Imagine that you just put your document into the photocopier and set the photocopier
to make 10 copies, sorted and stapled. Then you push the big button with the "C" to
start making your copies.
What do you think will happen?
(a) The photocopier makes the copies correctly.
(b) The photocopier settings are cleared and no copies are made
If you selected (b) you are right! The "C" stands for clear, not copy. The copy button is
actually the button on the left with the "line in a diamond" symbol. This symbol is
widely used on photocopiers, but is of little help to someone who is unfamiliar with this.

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Usability

Important Design Principles of Usability (Norman, 1990)

Visibility

All necessary controls should be visible for the user whenever he/she is supposed to
be able to use them
The design should provide visibility to all the set of possible actions
One control for each action that the user can take
Only the necessary parts should be made visible, depending upon the actions
available to the user
Much visibility is harmful since it makes the system look complicated to
use

Affordance

The affordance of an object refers to the sort of operations and manipulations that
can be done to the object
There should be a natural mapping between the parts that are made visible and the
actions that they support
e.g. A button, by being slightly raised above an otherwise flat surface, suggests
the idea of pushing it
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Usability

Important Design Principles of Usability (Norman, 1990)

Feedback

Sending back to the user information about what action has actually been done and
what results have been accomplished
Feedback should be provided in a form that is easy to understand and interpret

Accommodation of errors

Minimize the chance of the error in the first place or its effects once it occurs
Make sure that the users have the right conceptual model of the system
Make it hard for users to commit a mistake
Forcing functions can be introduced to prevent errors from occurring by
providing strong constraints on the system
a) Interlock that maintains a task sequence
b) Lockin that prevents premature termination of a task sequence
c) Lockout that prevents starting a faulty operation
Allow the users to reverse the results of an error or to recover the state of the system
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User-Centered Design (UCD)

What is UCD

UCD a design philosophy and a process in which the needs, wants, and
limitations of the end user of a product are given extensive attention at each
stage of the design process
A multi-stage problem solving process which requires designers to not only
analyze and foresee how users are likely to use a product but also test the
validity of their assumptions with regards to user behavior in real world tests
with actual users

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User-Centered Design (UCD)

Identify need for
human-centered design
Specify context of use

Evaluation design

System satisfies
specified requirements

Specify requirements

Produce design solutions

The UCD Cycle in ISO13407

(Four activities interlock and form the basis for an iterative approach to the
requirements-design-test cycle; the cycle is completed when the evaluation
of a product shows that it meets the specified requirements)33

User-Centered Design (UCD)

Eight Steps in UCD

Step 1: Define the context

Step 2: Describe the user
Step 3: Task analysis
Step 4: Function allocation
Step 5: Basic design
Step 6: Mockups & prototypes
Step 7: Usability testing
Step 8: Iterative test & redesign

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User-Centered Design (UCD)

Define the Context

Identifying the type of applications or the usage of the system

Market

e.g. Develop a kiosk for a zoo to provide practical information (e.g. how to get from
location A to location B) as well as content to enrich the experience
Whether this is a need for the system to justify its development

Describe the User

The important characteristics of the users of the system

Physical attributes (e.g. age, gender, size, reach, etc.)

Perceptual abilities (e.g. vision, hearing, touch, etc.)
Cognitive abilities (e.g. memory span, reading level, expertise level, etc.)
Personal traits (e.g. likes/dislikes, extrovert/introvert, patience, etc.)
Cultural and international diversity (e.g. languages, culture, ethics, etc.)
Special population (e.g. disabilities, elders, minors, etc.)

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User-Centered Design (UCD)

Task Analysis

Analyzing the way users perform the tasks when using the system
Talk to and observe users doing what they do
List each task
Break tasks down into steps

Function Allocation

Decide who or what is best suited to perform each task (or each step)

e.g. Machine remembers login Id and reminds the user, but the user remembers the
password
Base this on knowledge of system hardware, software, users abilities, culture,
communications protocols, privacy, cost, etc.

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User-Centered Design (UCD)

Basic Design

Summary of the components and their basic design (be creative!)

Brainstorming
Cross-check with design requirements, human factors references, hardware
specifications, budgets, laws/regulations, etc.

Ensure that the design will support the requirements and comply with the
constraints (verification and validation in software engineering)

Mockups & Prototypes

Rapidly mock up the system for testing with potential users

Pen and paper or whiteboard to start
Iterate, iterate, iterate!!
Increasingly functional and veridical
Implement a detailed prototype of the system
Prototyping is the process of quickly putting together a working model of
the system in order to test various aspects of its design
Various prototyping tools are available

Visual Basic/Visual Basic.NET, Flash, Dreamweaver,37

Caretta, Synopsis, etc.

User-Centered Design (UCD)

Usability Testing

Get real (or representative) users to perform tasks, using the prototype
Both objective and subjective (e.g. satisfaction) measures
Sometimes users want features that actually yield poor performance
Testing results are used to guide the iterative evaluation and redesign of the
system

Iterative test & redesign

Repeat cycles of testing and reworking the system, subject to cost/time

constraints
Focus on Functionality First !

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Brainstorming

An effective technique for generating a large number of ideas in a

group setting

Facilitator

Guide the session, encourage participation, write down ideas, etc.

Facilities

At least 2 people, but no more than 10 people

A brainstorming space
Something to write down ideas (e.g. paper, white-board, etc.)

Four Rules

Rule out criticism

Welcome freewheeling
Seek large quantities of ideas
Encourage combination and improvement of ideas
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Brainstorming

Types of Brainstorming

Free-form (unstructured) brainstorming

Participants simply contribute ideas as they come to mind
Pros

Participants can build on each others ideas

Relaxed atmosphere

Cons: the less assertive or low-ranking participants may not contribute

Structured brainstorming
Solicit one idea from each person in sequence
Pros

Cons

Each person has an equal chance to participate, regardless of rank or personality

Lack of spontaneity
Rigid environment

Combination of free-form and structured brainstorming 40

Design Touch Screen Zoo Information Kiosk

1. Define the Context
Identifying the type of applications or the usage of the system
Provide general information about the zoo (e.g. zoo hours, exhibits, shows, etc.)
Provide information about each animal
Provide and print zoo map
Create and print a personalized itinerary
Weather reporting

Benefits to justify its development

Enhance visitors experience (having fun as well as being educated)
Can rapidly update information (general, animals, etc.)
Reduce cost (fewer employee are needed)

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Design Touch Screen Zoo Information Kiosk

2. Describe the User
The important characteristics of the users of the system
Physical attributes
Age: a wide range (16 70)
Size and reach: 5th percentile 95th percentile of American population in the age of
16 to 70
Perceptual attributes
Vision: normal
Touch: normal
Cognitive attributes
Reading level: Understanding of English at a high enough level to recognize and
follow on-screen commands
Culture and international diversity
Language: English
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Design Touch Screen Zoo Information Kiosk

3. Task Analysis

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Design Touch Screen Zoo Information Kiosk

4. Function Allocation
User makes selections on the touch screen, and the machine processes the commands

5. Design
Welcome to the J&J Zoo
Please enjoy your J&J Zoo visit with our new Kiosk

Touch Screen
to Begin

Idle Screen

Main Screen

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Design Touch Screen Zoo Information Kiosk

5. Design (Cont.)
J&J Zoo Information

J&J Zoo Animal Info

Hours of Operation (May 10, 2007):

Open: 8:00 am
Close: 10:00 pm

Please make a selection

Choose an animal
Animals

Main Screen
Zoo Info

Zoo News!

Main Screen

Directions

Show Info

Animal Info

Vendor Info

MAMMALS:
Baboon
Bear,
Bear,Polar
Polar
Bison
Bobcat
Camel
Chimpanzee
Chinchilla
Deer
Eland
Elephant
Elk
Flying Fox
Gazelle
Gibbon
Giraffe

Polar Bear
The polar bear (Ursus maritimus),
also known as the white bear,
northern bear, sea bear, ice bear
or nanuq in some Inuit
languages, is a species of bear
that is native to the Arctic and
the apex predator within its
range. Its thick blubber and fur
insulate it against the cold. Its
fur, commonly mistaken as white
or cream-colored due to the way
light refracts within each hair, is
translucent, providing
camouflage from its prey. The
bear has a short tail and small
ears that help reduce heat loss,

About the Zoo

Return to Start

Zoo Information Screen

Return to Start

Animal Info Screen

6. Mockup & Prototype

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Design Touch Screen Zoo Information Kiosk

7. Usability Evaluation
Thirteen people who have been to zoos participated in the usability evaluation
experiment
Each participant performed a set of tasks (predetermined by the experimenters) on the
prototyped design, and their task performance, including the number of clicks and
number of errors, was recorded
After the tasks, each participant filled out a subjective questionnaire to rate his/her
satisfaction with different features of the design
Evaluation data was analyzed

8. Iterative Test & Redesign

Based on the evaluation outcome, plans to improve the design were made

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