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Inferential Statistics
This is testing the significance
of the difference between two
means, two standard deviations,
two proportions, or two
percentages.

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Comparison between two or
more variables often arises in
research or experiments and to be
able to make valid conclusions
regarding the result of the study,
one has to apply an appropriate
test statistic.
This chapter deals with the
discussion of the different test
statistics that are commonly used
in research studies

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Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a conjecture or
statement which aims to explain
certain phenomena in the real
world.

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The Null Hypothesis

Null Hypothesis is denoted by
Ho. It is the hypothesis that is
subjected to testing to determine
whether its truth can be accepted
or rejected.
This hypothesis states that
there is no significant relationship
or difference between two or more

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The Null Hypothesis

In statistical research, the
hypothesis should be written in
NULL FORM.
E.g.
There is no significant
difference between the
effectiveness of method A and
method B.

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The Alternative
Hypothesis
Alternative Hypothesis is denoted
by Ha. This is the hypothesis that
challenges the NULL HYPOTHESIS.
E.g.
There is a significant
difference between the
effectiveness of method A and
method B.

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The Alternative
Hypothesis
The sample is depending on the
type whether the test is either
one-tailed or two-tailed.

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Significance Level
To test the NULL HYPOTHESIS of
no significance in the difference
between the two methods in the
above example, one must set the
level of significance first. This is
the probability of having a type I
error and is denoted by the
symbol a. A type I error is the
probability of accepting the

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The Significance Level

Ha when, in fact the NULL
HYPOTHESIS, Ho is true.
The probability of accepting the
null hypothesis when, in fact , it is
false is called a type II error and is
denoted by the symbol B. the
most common level of significance
is 5%.

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One-Tailed and TwoTailed Tests

A test is called a one-tailed test
if the rejection region lies on one
extreme side of the distribution
and two-tailed if the rejection
region is located on both ends of
the ends of the distribution.
FIG.8.1

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One-Tailed and TwoTailed Tests

In fig.8a ( one-tailed), the
rejection region is the area to the
right of the vertical line under the
bell curve.
In fig 8b ( two-tailed), the
rejection is the areas to the
extreme left and right of the curve
marked by the two vertical lines.

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One-Tailed and TwoTailed Tests

A test is called a one-tailed test
if the rejection region lies on one
extreme side of the distribution
and two-tailed if the rejection
region is located on both ends of
the ends of the distribution.
FIG.8.1

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Testing Hypothesis
Below are the steps when
testing the truth of hypothesis.
1. Formulate the null hypothesis.
Denote it as Ho and the
alternative as Ha.
2. Set the desired level of
significance (a).
3. Determined the appropriate
test statistics to be used in

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Testing Hypothesis
4. Compute for the value of the
statistic to be used.
5. Compute for the degrees of
freedom.
6. Find the tubular value using
the table of values for different
tests from the appendix tables.

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Testing Hypothesis
7. Compare the computed value,
CV, to the tubular value, TV.
DECISION RULE: if the CV is less
than the TV, Accept the null
hypothesis. If the CV is greater
than the TV, reject the null
hypothesis. Make a conclusion
using the result of the

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Degree Of Freedom
(df)
The degree of
freedom gives the

number of pieces of independent

information available for
computing variability. For any
statistical tool used in testing
hypothesis, the number of
degrees of freedom required will
vary depending on the size of the
distribution. For a single group of
population, the number of degrees

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For two groups, the formula for
df is: N1 + N2 2 fpr t-Test and N2 for pearson r. These test
statistics will be discussed later in
this chapter.

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Test Concerning
8.8.1 z-test onMeans
the comparison between the
population means and the sample mean
If the population mean (u) and the
population variance (o) are
known, and U will be compared to
a sample mean x, use the formula.
Z=(x-u)
0

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Test Concerning
8.8.1 z-test onMeans
the comparison between the
population means and the sample mean
The tabular values of z can be
obtained from the following table:
Table8.1
Critical values of z

LEVEL

OF

SIGNI

FICANCE

Test type

0.10

0.05

0.025

0.01

One-tailed
test

+_ 1.28

+_ 1.645

+_ 1.96

+_ 2.33

Two-tailed
test

+_ 1.645

+_ 1.96

+_ 2.33

+_ 2.53

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Test Concerning
8.8.1 z-test onMeans
the comparison between the
population means and the sample mean
Decision rule: Reject Ho If 1z1 >_
1z tabular 1.
Example: A company which makes
a battery operated toy cars claims
that its products have a mean
lifespan of 5 yrs with a standard
deviation of 2 yrs.

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Test the null hypothesis that u= 5
yrs against the alternative
hypothesis that u=/ 5 yrs if a
random sample of 40 toy cars was
tested and found to have mean
life span of only 3 yrs . Use a 0.05
level of significance.
SOLUTION:
1. Ho: the means lifespan of the
battery operated toy cars is 5
yrs ( u=5yrs)
Ha : the mean lifespan of the

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2. a= 0.05 ; two- tailed
3. Use z-test as test statistics.
4. Computation:

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5. critical regions : z<- 1.95 and z
> 1.96
6. decision: reject the Ho and
accept the preposition that the
mean lifespan of a toy is not equal
to 5 yrs since 1z1 which is 6.32, is
greater than 1z tabular 1 , which
is 1.96.
7. the difference is significant.

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T-test on the comparison between the

population mean and the sample mean

Can be used to compare the

means when the population mean
(u) is known but the population
variance (o) is unknown.
When the population standard
deviation is unknown but the
sample standard deviation can
be computed the t-test can also
used instead of the z- test the

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T-test on the comparison between the

population mean and the sample mean

The denominator of the formula,

s, divided by the n for t is called
the standard error of the
statistics. It is the standard
deviation of the sampling
distribution of a statistics for
random samples n.
Decision rule :
Reject:

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T-test on the comparison between
the population mean and the
sample mean
Example 3:
The average length of time for people
to vote using the old procedure during
a presidential. election period in
precinct A is 55 minutes. Using
computerization as a new election
method, a random sample of 20
registrants was used and found to
have mean length of voting time of 30
mins with a standard deviation of 1.5

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T-test on the comparison between

the population mean and the
sample mean
Solution:

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T-test concerning means of independent
samples

When two samples are drawn

from naturally distributed
populations with the assumption
that their variances are equal,
the t-test with the given formula
should be used.
Example 4:

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T-test on the significance of the difference

between two correlated means.

When comparing two correlated

means, the t-test is the
appropriate test statistic. A
typical example is when
comparing the results of the pretest and the post-test
administered to a group of
individuals. The two tests must
be the same.

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Z-test on the significance of the difference

between two independent proportions

To determined if there is a
significant difference between
proportions of two variables, the
z-test will be used.

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Significance of the difference

between variances
8.11.1 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
when the variances of two or
more independent samples differ
the appropriate test statistics to
determined the significance of
such difference is the analysis of
variance (ANOVA) which makes
use of the F ratio or variance
ratio. The Various groups being

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Belong to a population with a
normal distribution, each group
randomly selected and
independent from the other
groups. The variables from each
group also have standard
devaitions that are
approximately equal.
Steps in solving the analysis of
variance
1 state the null hypothesis

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T-test for samples with correlated
variances
When the observations are
paired, then they are correlated
and their variances are not
independent estimates. In this
case, the t-test given by the
formula below should be used.

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