Data Model: Database Systems: Design, Implementation, and Management, Sixth Edition, Rob and Coronel

Chapter 2
Data Model
Database Systems:
Design, Implementation, and Management, Sixth
Edition, Rob and Coronel
1
In this chapter, you will learn:

Why data models are important
About the basic data-modeling building blocks
What business rules are and how they affect
database design
How the major data models evolved, and their
advantages and disadvantages

How data models can be classified by level of
abstraction
Database Systems 6e / Rob & Coronel
2- 2
The Importance of Data Models

Data model
Relatively simple representation, usually

graphical, of complex real-world data structures
Communications tool to facilitate interaction

among the designer, the applications
programmer, and the end user
Good database design uses an appropriate
data model as its foundation
2- 3
Importance of Data Modeling

End-users have different views and needs for
data
Data model organizes data for various users
2- 4
Data Model Basic Building Blocks

Entity is anything about which data are to be
collected and stored

Attribute is a characteristic of an entity
Relationship describes an association among
(two or more) entities
One-to-many (1:M) relationship
Many-to-many (M:N or M:M) relationship
One-to-one (1:1) relationship

2- 5
Business Rules
Brief, precise, and unambiguous description of a policy,
procedure, or principle within a specific organizations

environment
A company airplane must be inspect after 100 hours of

flight time
A customer may generate many invoices
Each invoice is generated by only one customer
Apply to any organization that stores and uses data to
generate information
Description of operations that help to create and enforce
actions within that organizations environment

2- 6
Business Rules (continued)

Must be rendered in writing
Must be kept up to date
Sometimes are external to the organization
Must be easy to understand and widely
disseminated
Describe characteristics of the data as viewed
by the company
2- 7
Sources of Business Rules

Company managers
Policy makers
Department managers
Written documentation
Procedures
Standards
Operations manuals
Direct interviews with end users

2- 8
Importance of Business Rules

Promote creation of an accurate data model
Standardize companys view of data
Constitute a communications tool between users
and designers
Allow designer to understand the nature, role, and
scope of data
Allow designer to understand business processes
Allow designer to develop appropriate relationship
participation rules and constraints
2- 9
The Evolution of Data Models

Hierarchical
Network
Relational
Entity relationship
Object oriented
2- 10
Evolution of Major Data Models
2- 11
The Hierarchical ModelEvolution

North American Rockwell was the prime
contractor for the Apollo project which

culminated in the moon landing.
This project required the management of
millions of parts a complex computer file

system was used.
An audit of the tapes revealed that 60% of the

data was redundant
This led Rockwell to develop an alternate

strategy to manage their data
2- 12
The Hierarchical ModelEvolution

GUAM (Generalized Update Access Method)
Based on the recognition that the many smaller parts would

come together as components of still larger components
In the mid 1960s. IBM joined Rockwell to expand the

capabilities of GUAM, replacing computer tapes with disk
storage
Information Management System (IMS)
The result of the joint effort between Rockwell and IBM
Worlds leading mainframe hierarchical database system in

the 1970s and early 1980s
2- 13
The Hierarchical Model

Characteristics
Basic concepts form the basis for subsequent
database development
Limitations lead to a different way of looking
at database design
Basic concepts show up in current data
models
Best understood by examining manufacturing
process
2- 14
A Hierarchical Structure
2- 15
Hierarchical StructureCharacteristics
Each parent can have many children
Each child has only one parent
Tree is defined by path that traces parent segments to child
segments, beginning from the left

Hierarchical path
Ordered sequencing of segments tracing hierarchical structure
Preorder traversal or hierarchic sequence

Left-list path
If Part D is most frequently accessed and updated, change the
database structure to place Part D closer to the left side of the tree
This will give a shorter traversal
2- 16
The Hierarchical Model

Advantages over a file system
Conceptual simplicity easy to understand the model layout
Database security
Data independence (a change in a data type will be

automatically cascaded throughout the database by the
DBMS, thereby eliminating the need to make changes in the
program segments that reference the changes data type)
Database integrity always a link between parent and child
Efficiency very efficient when it contains a large volume of

data in 1:M relationships and whose relationships are fixed
over time
2- 17
The Hierarchical Model (continued)

Disadvantages over a file system
Complex implementation detailed knowledge of the physical

data storage characteristics is required by the designers and
programmers
Difficult to manage relocation of segments requires application

changes
Lacks structural independence
Complex applications programming and use programmers and

end users must know precisely how the data are physically
distributed within the database
Implementation limitations difficult to support M:N relationships
Lack of standards no standard DDL and no DML

2- 18
Child with Multiple Parents
2- 19
The Network Model

Created to
Represent complex data relationships more

effectively
Improve database performance
Impose a database standard
Conference on Data Systems Languages
(CODASYL)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Database Task Group (DBTG)
2- 20
Crucial Database Components

Schema
Conceptual organization of entire database as
viewed by the database administrator
Subschema
Defines database portion seen by the
application programs that actually produce the
desired information from data contained within
the database
Data Management Language (DML)
Define data characteristics and data structure

in order to manipulate the data
2- 21
Data Management
Language Components
Schema Data Definition Language (DDL)
Enables database administrator to define

schema components
Subschema DDL
Allows application programs to define

database components that will be used
DML
Manipulates database contents
2- 22
Network ModelBasic Structure

Resembles hierarchical model
Collection of records in 1:M relationships
A relationship is called a Set

Composed of at least two record types
Owner
Equivalent to the hierarchical models parent
Member
Equivalent to the hierarchical models child
A record can appear as a member in more than one
set i.e., a member may have multiple owners
2- 23
A Network Data Model
2- 24
The Network Data Model

Advantages
Conceptual simplicity
Handles more relationship types
Data access flexibility no need for a preorder

traversal
Promotes database integrity must first define the

owner and then the member record
Data independence
Conformance to standards
2- 25
The Network Data Model (continued)

Disadvantages
System complexity
Lack of structural independence
2- 26
The Relational Model

Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970
Considered ingenious but impractical in 1970
Conceptually simple
Computers lacked power to implement the
relational model
Today, microcomputers can run sophisticated
relational database software

2- 27
The Relational Model: Basic Structure

Relational Database Management System
(RDBMS)
Performs same basic functions provided by
hierarchical and network DBMS systems, plus

other functions
RDBMS handles all the complex physical detais
Most important advantage of the RDBMS is its
ability to let the user/designer operate in a human

logical environment
2- 28
The Relational Model:Basic Structure

Table (relations)
Matrix consisting of a series of row/column

intersections
Related to each other by sharing a common
entity characteristic
Relational schema
Visual representation of relational databases

entities, attributes within those entities, and
relationships between those entities
2- 29
Linking Relational Tables
2- 30
Relational Table
Stores a collection of related entities
Resembles a file
Relational table is purely logical structure
How data are physically stored in the

database is of no concern to the user or the
designer
This property became the source of a real

database revolution
2- 31
A Relational Schema
2- 32
The Relational Model

Advantages
Structural independence changes in the

relational data structure do not affect the DBMSs
data access in any way
Improved conceptual simplicity by concentrating on

the logical view
Easier database design, implementation,

management, and use
Ad hoc query capability - SQL
Powerful database management system

2- 33
The Relational Model (continued)

Disadvantages
Substantial hardware and system software

overhead
Can facilitate poor design and implementation
May promote islands of information problems
2- 34
The Entity Relationship Model

Widely accepted and adapted graphical tool
for data modeling

Introduced by Peter Chen in 1976
Graphical representation of entities and their
relationships in a database structure
2- 35

Basic Structure
Entity relationship diagram (ERD)
Uses graphic representations to model

database components
Entity is mapped to a relational table
Entity instance (or occurrence) is row in table

Entity set is collection of like entities
Connectivity labels types of relationships
Diamond connected to related entities through

a relationship line
2- 36

CrowFoot Components
2- 37
Relationships: The Basic Chen ERD
2- 38
Relationships:
The Basic Crows Foot ERD
2- 39

Advantages
Exceptional conceptual simplicity
Visual representation
Effective communication tool
Integrated with the relational data model
2- 40

Disadvantages
Limited constraint representation
Limited relationship representation
No data manipulation language
Loss of information content
2- 41
The Object Oriented Model

Semantic data model (SDM) developed by
Hammer and McLeod in 1981

Modeled both data and their relationships in a
single structure known as an object

Basis of object oriented data model (OODM)
OODM becomes the basis for the object
oriented database management system

(OODBMS)
2- 42

Object is described by its factual content
Like relational models entity
Includes information about relationships
between facts within object and relationships

with other objects
Unlike relational models entity
Subsequent OODM development allowed an
object to also contain operations

Object becomes basic building block for
autonomous structures
2- 43
Developments that
Boosted OODMs Popularity
Growing costs put a premium on code reusability

Complex data types and system requirements
became difficult to manage with a traditional

RDBMS
Became possible to support increasingly
sophisticated transaction & information
requirements
Ever-increasing computing power made it
possible to support the large computing
overhead required
2- 44
Object Oriented Data Model

Basic Structure
Object: abstraction of a real-world entity
Attributes describe the properties of an object
Objects that share similar characteristics are
grouped in classes
Classes are organized in a class hierarchy
Inheritance is the ability of an object within
the class hierarchy to inherit the attributes

and methods of classes above it
2- 45
A Comparison of the OO Model

and the ER Model
2- 46

Advantages
Adds semantic content
Visual presentation includes semantic content
Database integrity
Both structural and data independence
2- 47
The Object Oriented Model (continued)

Disadvantages
Slow pace of OODM standards development
Complex navigational data access
Steep learning curve
High system overhead slows transactions
Lack of market penetration

2- 48
Other Models
Extended Relational Data Model (ERDM)
Semantic data model developed in response

to increasing complexity of applications
DBMS based on the ERDM often described as

an object/relational database management
system (O/RDBMS)
Primarily geared to business applications
2- 49
Other Models (continued)

Dates objections to ERDM label
Given proper support for domains, relational

data models are quite capable of handling
complex data
Therefore, capability that is supposedly being

extended is already there
O/RDM label is not accurate because the

relational data models domain is not an object
model structure
2- 50
Data Models: A Summary

Each new data model capitalized on the
shortcomings of previous models

Common characteristics:
Conceptual simplicity without compromising the
semantic completeness of the database
Represent the real world as closely as possible
Representation of real-world transformations
(behavior) must be in compliance with
consistency and integrity characteristics of any
data model
2- 51
The Development of Data Models
2- 52
Database Models and the Internet

Characteristics of successful Internet age
databases
Flexible, efficient, and secure Internet access

that is easily used, developed, and supported
Support for complex data types and

relationships
Seamless interfacing with multiple data

sources and structures
2- 53
Database Models and the Internet
Relative conceptual simplicity to make

database design and implementation less
cumbersome
An abundance of available database design,

implementation, and application development
tools
A powerful DBMS graphical user interface

(GUI) to help make the DBAs job easier
2- 54
Degrees of Data Abstraction

Way of classifying data models
Many processes begin at high level of
abstraction and proceed to an everincreasing level of detail

Designing a usable database follows the
same basic process
2- 55
Degrees of Data Abstraction

(continued)
American National Standards
Institute/Standards Planning and

Requirements Committee (ANSI/SPARC)
Classified data models according to their

degree of abstraction (1970s):
Conceptual
External
Internal
2- 56
Data Abstraction Levels
2- 57
The Conceptual Model

Represents global view of the database
Enterprise-wide representation of data as
viewed by high-level managers

Basis for identification and description of
main data objects, avoiding details

Most widely used conceptual model is the
entity relationship (ER) model

2- 58
A Conceptual Model for Tiny College
2- 59
Advantages of Conceptual Model

Provides a relatively easily understood macro
level view of data environment

Independent of both software and hardware
Does not depend on the DBMS software used
to implement the model
Does not depend on the hardware used in the
implementation of the model
Changes in either the hardware or the DBMS
software have no effect on the database design
at the conceptual level
2- 60
The Internal Model

Representation of the database as seen by
the DBMS
Adapts the conceptual model to the DBMS
Software dependent
Hardware independent
2- 61
The External Model

End users view of the data environment
Requires that the modeler subdivide set of
requirements and constraints into functional

modules that can be examined within the
framework of their external models
Good design should:
Consider such relationships between views
Provide programmers with a set of restrictions

that govern common entities
2- 62
A Division of an Internal Model

into External Models
2- 63
Advantages of External Models

Use of database subsets makes application
program development much simpler
Facilitates designers task by making it easier

to identify specific data required to support
each business units operations
Provides feedback about the conceptual

models adequacy
Creation of external models helps to ensure
security constraints in the database design

2- 64
The External Model

DBMS dependent
Hardware independent
2- 65
The External Models for Tiny College
2- 66
The Physical Model

Operates at lowest level of abstraction,
describing the way data are saved on storage

media such as disks or tapes
Software and hardware dependent
Requires that database designers have a
detailed knowledge of the hardware and

software used to implement database design
2- 67
Levels of Data Abstraction
2- 68
Summary
A good DBMS will perform poorly with a
poorly designed database

A data model is a (relatively) simple
abstraction of a complex real-world
data-gathering environment
Basic data modeling components are:
Entities
Attributes
Relationships
2- 69
Summary (continued)
Hierarchical model
Based on a tree structure composed of a

root segment, parent segments, and child
segments
Depicts a set of one-to-many (l:M)

relationships between a parent and its
children
Does not include ad hoc querying capability
2- 70
Summary (continued)
Network model attempts to deal with many of
the hierarchical models limitations
Relational model:
Current database implementation standard
Much simpler than hierarchical or network design
Object is basic modeling structure of object
oriented model
Data modeling requirements are a function of
different data views (global vs. local) and level

of data abstraction
2- 71

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Chapter 2

In this chapter, you will learn:

advantages and disadvantages

Database Systems 6e / Rob & Coronel

The Importance of Data Models

Relatively simple representation, usually

Communications tool to facilitate interaction

Good database design uses an appropriate

data model as its foundation

Database Systems 6e / Rob & Coronel

Importance of Data Modeling

Database Systems 6e / Rob & Coronel

Data Model Basic Building Blocks

collected and stored

(two or more) entities

One-to-many (1:M) relationship

Many-to-many (M:N or M:M) relationship

One-to-one (1:1) relationship

procedure, or principle within a specific organizations

A company airplane must be inspect after 100 hours of

A customer may generate many invoices

Each invoice is generated by only one customer

Apply to any organization that stores and uses data to

Description of operations that help to create and enforce

actions within that organizations environment

Business Rules (continued)

Sources of Business Rules

Direct interviews with end users

Importance of Business Rules

Database Systems 6e / Rob & Coronel

The Evolution of Data Models

Database Systems 6e / Rob & Coronel

Evolution of Major Data Models

Database Systems 6e / Rob & Coronel

The Hierarchical ModelEvolution

contractor for the Apollo project which

This project required the management of

millions of parts a complex computer file

An audit of the tapes revealed that 60% of the

This led Rockwell to develop an alternate

The Hierarchical ModelEvolution

Based on the recognition that the many smaller parts would

In the mid 1960s. IBM joined Rockwell to expand the

Information Management System (IMS)

The result of the joint effort between Rockwell and IBM

Worlds leading mainframe hierarchical database system in

The Hierarchical Model

Database Systems 6e / Rob & Coronel

segments, beginning from the left

Ordered sequencing of segments tracing hierarchical structure

Preorder traversal or hierarchic sequence

Database Systems 6e / Rob & Coronel

The Hierarchical Model

Conceptual simplicity easy to understand the model layout

Data independence (a change in a data type will be

Database integrity always a link between parent and child

Efficiency very efficient when it contains a large volume of

The Hierarchical Model (continued)

Complex implementation detailed knowledge of the physical

Difficult to manage relocation of segments requires application

Lacks structural independence

Complex applications programming and use programmers and

Implementation limitations difficult to support M:N relationships