L4: DC BASIC PRINCIPLES & COMPONENTS

SUBJECT: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Electrical Circuits
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements linked
together in a closed path so that electric current may flow
continuously. WE STUDY ONLY LINEAR ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS, which can
be described with linear equations

Basic Circuit components

We study only those components that have 2 accessible points (terminals

or leads), called two-terminal components. In order to explain its
behavior we are going to find out the mathematical relation that exists
between V and I in each of the elements, voltage-current relationship,
usually known as characteristic equation:

Passive

Active

Basic topology of electric circuit

Topology: Deals with properties of circuits which are unaected when the
circuit is stretched, twisted, or otherwise distorted the size and the shape,
not concerned with the particular types of elements appearing in the circuit,
but only with the way in which branches and nodes are arranged.
Node: A point at which two or more circuit elements have a common
connection, The number of branches incident to a node is known as the
degree of that node. (n)
Branch: A single path, containing one circuit element, which connects one
node to any other node, Represented by a line in the graph. (b)
Path: A set of elements that may be traversed in order without passing
through the same node twice.
Loop: A close path or a closed contour selected in a network/circuit, A path
that may be started from a particular node to other nodes through branches
and comes to the original/starting node,-Also known asclosed path.
Mesh: A loop that does not contain any other loops within it, Any mesh
is a circuit/loop but any loop/circuit may not be a mesh. (m)

Kirchos Laws

Kirchos Current Law (KCL)

The algebraic sum of currents entering a node is zero. Add each
branch current entering the node and subtract each branch current
leaving the node.
currents in - currents out = 0 Or currents in =
currents out

Kirchos Voltage Law (KVL)

The algebraic sum of voltages around each loop is zero.
voltage drops - voltage rises = 0 Or voltage drops =
voltage rises
the process to implement this law correctly is the following:
1.- Mark the polarity of every component of the loop.
2.- Beginning with one node go thru the loop following a reference
direction
3.- if you encounter a sign terminal first in a component add its

Kirchos Voltage Law

1.- Mark the polarity of every component
of the loop.
2.- Beginning with one node go thru the
loop following a reference direction
3.- if you encounter a sign terminal first
in a component add its voltage (+)
and if you encounter a + sign terminal first
subtract its voltage (-)

12 V AB V BC 0

Kirchos Laws circuit analysis method

Kirchos Laws can be used to Solve an electric circuit, in other words to find the
value for the current in every branch of the circuit. if we begin in a circuit
with n nodes, b branches and m meshes, we have to find the value of b unknown
magnitudes.
we use Kirchos Laws in order to achieve the necessary linear equations to deal
with the unknown magnitudes, and the process is the following:
1.- Apply the KCL to n-1 nodes (in order to avoid redundant equations)
2.- Apply the KCL to m meshes
(it can be demostrated that b = m + n -1 in every circuit)
3.-Solve the system of equations obtained in the way that you prefer

From now on, we are

going to study how is
the equation for the
voltage drop in every
type of component used
in electrical circuits

Basic passive components: Resistors

Is a two terminal device that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element.

Resistors act to reduce current flow, and, at the same time, act to lower voltage
levels within circuits. adjusting signal levels, bias active elements. High-power
resistors can be used todissipate energy as heat .
Its characteristic equation is the OHMs LAW.
A resistor for which the resistance can be changed is a variable resistor or
potentiometer
Resistance (R) is the physical property of an
element that impedes the flow of current . The units
of resistance are Ohms ().
Its inverse is called conductance (G) its units are
Siemens (S)
Resistivity () is the
ability of a material to
resist current flow. The
units of resistivity are
Ohm-meters (-m) or
(mm2/m)
Resistivity of copper
1.68108 m0.017 mm2/m
Resistivity of glass
1010 to 1014
m

1016 to 1020 mm2/m

Limit values for resistors

Zero
resistance

infinite
resistance

Short - circuit

Open circuit

Resistors color code

Near room temperature, the resistivity

of metals typically increases as
temperature is increased, while the
resistivity of semiconductors typically
decreases as temperature is increased.
As a consequence, the resistance of
wires, resistors, and other components
often change with temperature. This
eect may be undesired, causing an
electronic circuit to malfunction at
extreme temperatures. In some cases,
however, the eect is put to good use.
(thermistor).
If the temperature T does not vary too
much, a linear approximation is
typically used:
Where alfa is called the temperature
coefficient of resistance, is a fixed
reference temperature (usually room
temperature), and is the resistance at
temperature. The parameter is an
1
empirical
parameter
from
235 fitted
t
measurement data. The temperature

ENERGY IN A TWO TERMINAL COMPONENT

COMMON REFERENCE FOR POWER AND ENERGY:

P>0 component comsumes power from system

P<0 component release power to system

p( t )
INSTANTANEOUS POWER:

v( t ) .i( t )

ENERGY:W

dP(t ) dt

POWER AND ENERGY IN A RESISTOR

v( t ) Ri( t )
We begin from the characteristic equation of a Resistor:
If we multiply both sides by the instantaneous current
v i

p( t ) v( t ) .i( t )
In order to get the power:

(t )

(t )

i(2t ) R

Power release by
source

power dissipated
by resistor

Power in a resistor is always positive, therefore resistor is always dissipating

And to get the energy from the power:
t

WR dP(t ) dt R i(t)2 dt

We cant say nothing in advance

Capacitors
A capacitor consists of a pair of
conductors separated by a dielectric
(insulator). Its capable to temporarily
store energy in an electrostatic field
form, the most common type of
capacitor is the parallel-plate capacitor.

When a voltage exists across the

conductors, it provides the energy to
move the charge from the positive plate
to the other plate, due to this Electric
charge is stored in the plates a
capacitor can become charged. The

Capacitors

Capacitance (C) is the ability of a material to store charge in the form of

separated charge or an electric field. It is the ratio of charge stored to
voltage difference between two plates. Capacitance is measured in Farads (F).
It depends on the geometry and the dielectric proporties

For a parallel plate capacitor:

The characteristic equation of a capacitor can be easily demostrated

through the capacitance definition:

C Q

Q CV
V
dQ
d (CV )
i
i
dt
dt
Cd (V )
dv
i
i C.
dt
dt

Note that if the voltage between terminals is

constant, the current through the capacitor is
null, in fact the current doesnt depend on the
absolute value of voltage but on the variation
of the voltage!

Capacitors: charging
process
iR q C 0
C RC dq dt q 0
RC dq

dt

C q

dq
dt

C q RC
ln(C q )
q C e

RC
RC Time constant

In DC circuits:
FULLY CHARGED CAPACITOR OPEN CIRCUIT

t
RC

t
RC

I( t ) I o e

Capacitors: discharging
process
iR q 0
C
RC dq

dt

q 0

RC dq

q
dt
dq
dt

q
RC
t
ln(q )
cte
RC
qKe

RC

t
RC

Q( t ) Q o e
IN DC CIRCUIT
A discharged capacitor short-circuit

I( t ) I o e

ENERGY IN A CAPACITOR
We begin from the characteristic equation of a capacitor:
ic C

dvc
dt

If we multiply both sides by the instantaneous voltage of

capacitor

p( t ) v( t ) .i( t )

In dv
order
to get the power:
c

vc ic C v c
Power release by
source

dt
power stored
by capacitor

And to get the energy from the power:

t

W dP(t ) dt

Thus, Work exerted to charge a capacitor is given by the equation:

Inductors
An inductor is a two terminal element
consisting of a winding of N turns capable of
storing energy in the form of a
magnetic Field.
Inductance (L) is a measure of the ability
of a device to store energy in the form of a
magnetic field. It is measured in Henries
(H). It Only depends on the geometry of the
LI
inductor and the material of the core
Inductance in a cylindrical coil

0 = permeability of free space = 4 1

K = Nagaoka coefficient

N = number of turns
A = area of cross-section of the coil in m
l = length of coil in m

Inductors
The magnetic field from an inductor can generate an
induced voltage, which can be used to drive current
Li
d d ( Li ) Ldi
dt
dt
dt
di
di
e L vL L
dt
dt

Note that if the current through the inductor is constant, the voltage
between the terminals of the inductor is null, in fact the voltage doesn
t depend on the absolute value of current but on the variation of the
current!,
In DC the inductor is like a SHORT - CIRCUIT

Ex. II

Ex. I

I( t ) I o e t / L

I( t )

o
1 e t / L
R

While building the magnetic field, the

inductor resists current flow, but in
steady state DC circuit the inductor
behaves like an SHORT-CIRCUIT

L
: RL time constant
R

Inductors

What happens to the light bulb when the switch is

closed?
What happens to the light bulb when the switch is then
opened?

ENERGY IN AN INDUCTOR
We begin from the characteristic equation of an inductor:

o L

dI
dt

If we multiply both sides by the instantaneous voltage of

capacitor

p( t ) v( t ) .i( t )

In order to get the power:

o I L I
Power release by
source

dI
dt

power stored
by capacitor

And to get the energy from the power:

WL dP( t ) dt

Electrical sources
An electrical source is a voltage or
current generator capable of supplying
energy to a circuit

Ideal voltage source

An ideal voltage source is a circuit element where the voltage
across the source is independent of the current through it.
The internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is zero.
If the current through an ideal voltage source is
completely determined by the external circuit, it is
considered an independent voltage source.
But if you study the power release by the source when R
decrease, you will find that this power soar
dramatically!!

Real voltage source

The real voltage source includes a internal

resistor, that limitates the current that the source
can produce.

VIr

Ideal current source

An ideal current source is a circuit element where the current
through the source is independent of the voltage across it. The
internal resistance of an ideal current source is infinite (or its conductance is
zero).
But if you study the power release by the source when external R increase, you
will find that this power soar dramatically!!
If the voltage across an ideal current
source is completely determined by the
external
circuit,
it
is
considered
an
independent current source

Real current source

The real current source includes a internal resistor in parallel, that

limitates the voltage that the source can produce.

Dependent Sources
A dependent or controlled source depends upon a dierent voltage
or current in the circuit. They add a new equation to the system of the
circuit.
Voltage
controlled
Current controlled source:
source: the value of the
source depends on a
voltage of the circuit

the value of the source

depends on a current of the
circuit

Electric Circuit Design

Principles

Series circuits
A series circuit has only one current path,
Current through each component is the same, In
a series circuit, all elements must function for
the circuit to be complete

Parallel circuits
A parallel circuit has more than one
current path branching from the energy
source, Voltage across each pathway is the
same, In a parallel circuit, separate current
paths function independently of one
another

For parallel voltage sources,

the voltage is the same
across all batteries, but the
current supplied by each
element is a fraction of the
total current