Science
ERE 371
Surveying for Engineers
Surveying measurements
Observations
ERE 371
Overview
Basic principles of measurements
Subsequent use of measurements
Planning for measurements
Units of measurements
ERE 371
Measurements
Single measurement
Issues
ERE 371
Measurements
Methods for increasing confidence
Expressions of quality
ERE 371
Precision
Understanding precision
ERE 371
Formulae
variance: s 2
n 1
2
standard deviation: s s
Example
Set A: 2.3 m, 2.4 m, 2.5 m; s2 = 0.01 m2, s = 0.1 m
Set B: 2.1 m, 2.3 m, 2.5 m ; s2 = 0.04 m2, s = 0.2 m
ERE 371
Accuracy
Understanding accuracy
Example
Accepted value is 2.31 m
Which measurement set is more accurate, A or B?
Set A average: 2.4 m
Set B average: 2.3 m
ERE 371
ACCURACY
Low
Low
High
PRECISION
High
ERE 371
Expressing Accuracy
Absolute accuracy
Relative accuracy
ERE 371
Two approaches
Sources of error
Types of error
ERE 371
Theory of Errors
Theory
Error
Issues
ERE 371
Basic Principles
Four underlying principles in Theory of Errors
ERE 371
Theory of Observations
Theory
Issues
ERE 371
ERE 371
Types of Errors
Systematic errors (biases)
Random errors
ERE 371
Redundancy in Measurements
Generally make redundant measurements
Residuals
ERE 371
Normal distribution
ERE 371
Laws of Probability
Laws of probability
Increased precision
Decreased precision
ERE 371
Expressing Precision
Expressing precision using standard deviation
n 1
2
r
n 1
ERE 371
Readings
Chapter 3 sections 3.1 3.16
ERE 371
ERE 371
ERE 371
Significant Figures
Two types of numeric values
In calculations
Issue
ERE 371
Use of Weights
Applications
ERE 371
Weighted Measurements
Situation: have greater confidence in some values
How to determine weight?
Commonly use weight derived by inverse proportion
1
1
or p
factor
factor 2
ERE 371
Group
2
Group
3
2.4
2.8
4.5
3.0
3.0
3.2
3.1
3.2
5.1
Sum
8.5
9.0
12.8
Mean
2.8
3.0
4.3
S.D.
0.38
0.20
0.97
Group
2
Group
3
2.4
2.8
4.5
3.0
3.0
3.2
3.1
3.2
5.1
Sum
8.5
9.0
12.8
Mean
2.8
3.0
4.3
S.D.
0.38
0.20
0.97
Weight
6.96
25.0
1.06
1
pi
(s.d.)2
Propagation of Variance
Variance of observations
Issue
ERE 371
Theoretical formulation
U f X, Y, Z, , Q
U
U2
2X UY
2Y UZ
2Z QU
ERE 371
2
Q
Measurements made
Slope distance (L) = 124.067 m with S.D. (sL) = 0.017 m
Angle () = 31 05' 25" with S.D. (s) = 00 00' 10"
= 0.0000485 radians
ERE 371
H
L (-sin ) - 124.067 sin (3105'25" ) -64.06671 m/rad
H 2 H 2
2
2
2
5 2
sH
sL
s (0.856) (0.017) (-64.067) (4.85 10 )
L
sH 0.01489 0.015m
ERE 371
ERE 371
Preanalysis of Measurements
Issue
Steps
ERE 371
Preanalysis of Measurements
Situation
H Scos
Reducing slope distance to horizontal
How well does vertical angle need to be measured?
Steps
Differentiate H w.r.t.
Divide by original equation
dH
Ssin
d
dH Ssin d
dH Ssin d
tan d
H
Scos
ERE 371
dH
tan H
Preanalysis of Measurements
Example
Measure slope distance along ~15 incline
Want relative accuracy in H of 1 in 10,000
How well do we need to measure ?
dH
d
tan H
1
0.000373 radians
tan1510,000
Implication
Need a 1' instrument
ERE 371
Units of Measurement
Linear distance units
Historic: Gunters chain: 1 chain = 66 feet = 4 rods = 100 links
English: international foot, US survey foot, yard, mile
Metric: meter
Angular distance
ERE 371
Units of Measurement
Area units
English: Acre: 1 acre = 1 chain x 10 chains = 43560 ft2
Metric: Hectare: 1 ha = 100m x 100m = 10,000 m2
Volume units
English: Cubic yards, Acre-feet
Metric: Cubic meters
ERE 371
Readings
Chapter 2 sections 2.1 2.5
Chapter 3 sections 3.17 3.21
ERE 371