MOTIVATION AND

LEADERSHIP

What is Motivation?

Motivation refers to the intensity of a

persons desire to engage in an activity.

Motivation is a human psychological

characteristic that contributes to a persons
degree of commitment.

It includes the factors that cause, channel,

and sustain human behavior in a particular
committed direction.

Motivation is defined as the extent to which

persistent effort is directed toward a goal
1. Effort - must be defined in relation to its

appropriateness to the objectives being pursued.

2. Persistence - relates to the willingness of the
individual to stay with a task until it is complete
3. Direction - measured in terms of how
persistent effort is applied in relation to the
goals being pursued
4. Goals - individual goals and organizational
goals (must be compatible)

The Motivation Process

Unsatisfied
Need

Tension

Drives

Search
Behavior

Satisfied
Need

Reduction
of Tension

Gholipour A. 2006. Organizational Behavior. University of

Tehran.

The Motivation Process

Theories of Motivation

Content theories

Process theories

Human needs and how people with different

needs may respond to different work
situations.
How people give meaning to rewards and
make decisions on various work-related
behaviors?

Reinforcement theory

How peoples behavior is influenced by

environmental consequences?

Content Theories of
Motivation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

McGregors Theory X and Y

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Alderfers ERG Theory
McClellands Three Needs Theory
Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs

Maslows Hierarchy of
Needs

Existence Relatedness Growth (ERG) Theory

Alderfers theory of human needs focuses on

three needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.
Existence needs are similar to Maslows
physiological and security needs.
Relatedness needs are those that require
interpersonal interaction to satisfy (prestige and
esteem from others).
Growth needs are similar to Maslows needs for
self-esteem and self-actualization.

 Three Needs Theory.

Need for achievement (nAch).
The desire to do something better or more

efficiently, to solve problems, or to master

complex tasks.

Need for affiliation (nAff).

The desire to establish and maintain friendly
and warm relations with others.
Need for power (nPower).
The desire to control others, to influence their

behavior, or to be responsible for others.

Two-Factor Theory

Hygiene Factor - work condition related to

dissatisfaction caused by discomfort or pain
maintenance

factor
contributes to employees feeling not dissatisfied
contributes to absence of complaints

Motivation Factor - work condition related to

the satisfaction of the need for psychological
growth
job

enrichment
leads to superior performance & effort

Comparison of Maslows, Alderfers,

Herzbergs, and McClellands Motivation
Theories.

Process Theories

Process theories of motivation focus on the

thought processes through which people
choose among alternative courses of action.

Choices are based on:

Individual preferences.
Available rewards.
Possible work outcomes.

1.
2.
3.

Equity theory.
Expectancy theory.
Goal-setting theory.

Equity Theory

A theory based on the assumption that a major

factor for job motivation is the individuals
evaluation of the equity or fairness of the reward
received.
Equity can be defined as a ratio between the
individuals job inputs (such as effort or skill) and
job rewards (such as pay or promotion).
According to equity theory, employees perceive
what they get from a job situation (outcomes) in
relation to what they put into it (inputs) and then
compare their input-output ratio with that of
relevant others.

Expectancy Theory

A theory of motivation that says that people

choose how to behave from among
alternative courses of behavior, based on
their expectations of what there is to gain
from each behavior.
Expectancy theory states that an individual
tends to act in a certain way on the basis of
the expectation that the act will be followed
by a given outcome and the attractiveness of
that outcome to the individuals.

Expectancy - belief that effort leads to

performance
Instrumentality - belief that performance is
related to rewards
Valence - value or importance placed on a
particular reward

Intrinsic rewards are rewards that are felt

directly by the individual. For example, feelings
of accomplishment, increased self-esteem, and
the satisfaction of developing new skills.
Extrinsic rewards, in contrast, such as bonuses,
praise, or promotions, are provided by an
outside agent, such as supervisor or work group.
A single level of performance may be associated
with a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic
outcomes, each having its own valence.
Different rewards have different valances
depending on what is important to the people
involved.

Expectancy Model of Motivation

Effort
Effort

Perceived effortperformance
probability
If I work hard, will I
get the job done?

Performance

Perceived
performance
reward probability

What rewards will I get

when the job is well
done?

Reward

Perceived
value of reward
What rewards do I
value?

Goal-Setting Theory
Proposes that setting goals that are
accepted, specific, and challenging yet
achievable will result in higher
performance than having no or easy
goals.

Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement Theory
An approach to motivation based on the law of
effect the idea that behavior with positive
consequences tends to be repeated, while
behavior with negative consequences tends not
to be repeated.
It involves peoples memory of past stimulusresponse-consequence experiences.
Reinforcement Process
Stimulus -> Response -> Consequences ->
Future Response

Behavior modification use reinforcement theory to

change human behavior.
It is the technique of changing or modifying behavior
through the use of contingent rewards or
punishments.
A manager who wishes to change employee
behavior must change the consequences of that
behavior.
Example:
Someone who is frequently late might be motivated
to come in on time (a behavior change) if the
manager expresses strong approval for each on-time
or early appearance (change of consequence),
rather than ignoring on-time arrival.
Lateness may also be stopped by expressing strong
disapproval of the late arrival time if the manager
had been previously been ignoring the late arrivals.

Four common methods of behavior modification

Positive reinforcement: desirable behaviors are
encouraged, or reinforced, by positive consequences.
Negative reinforcement (or avoidance learning):
employees change their behavior to avoid unpleasant
consequences, such as criticism or a poor evaluation.
Extinction: the absence of reinforcement for
undesirable behavior so that the behavior eventually
stops recurring.
Punishment: the application of negative consequences
to stop or correct improper behavior. It may range
from criticism to reduced pay or dismissal.

Leadership Fundamentals
Defining Leader and Leadership
A leader is an individual who is able to exert influence
over other people to help achieve group or
organizational goals
Leadership is the process by which a person (the
leader) exerts influence over others and inspires,
motivates and directs their activities to achieve group
or organizational goals.

The Trait Approach to

Leadership

This approach assumes that leaders share

certain inborn personality traits that differentiate
them from non-leaders.
This view that leaders are born, not made is
still popular among laypersons, though not
among professional researchers.
In searching for measurable leadership traits,
researchers have taken two approaches: (1)
comparing the traits of leaders with non-leaders;
and (2) comparing the traits of effective leaders
with those of ineffective leaders.

Traits of a Good Leader

The Behavioral Approach to

Leadership

The emphasis of this approach was to determine various

types of leadership behaviour associated with leadership
effectiveness.
Rather than try to figure out who effective leaders are,
researchers tried to determine what effective leaders do,
how they delegate tasks, how they communicate with and
try motivate their followers or employees, how they carry
out their tasks, and so on.
Behaviors, unlike traits, can be learned so it followed that
individuals trained in appropriate leadership behaviors
would be able to lead more effectively.

Continuum of Leadership Behavior

Autocratic Leadership
Do what you are told, and dont ask
questions!
Leader makes decisions without reference to
anyone else.
High degree of dependency on the leader.
Can create de-motivation and alienation
of staff.
May be valuable in some types of business
where decisions need to be made quickly and
decisively.

Paternalistic
As long as it is done right, Ill see that you get
what you deserve.
Also called benevolent autocratic style, the
leader acts as a father figure guides, consults
and support subordinates.

Democratic Leadership
Lets agree together how best to do it.
Leader involves employees in decision
making, delegates authority, encourages
participation in deciding work methods and
goals, and used feedback to coach employees.
Consultative: seeks input and hears the
concerns and issues of employees but make
the final decision him- or herself.
Participative: often allows employees to have
a say in whats decided.

Laissez-Faire (Free Rein) Leadership

I dont care what you do, as long as you
keep out of my way.
The subordinates have complete freedom
to make decisions and to complete their
work in whatever way they see fit.
A laissez-faire leader might simply
provide necessary materials and answer
questions.

Which leadership style is the best?

Depends on function of the leader,

subordinates, and situation
Some leaders cant work well with high
participation of subordinates
Some employees lack the ability or desire
to assume responsibility
Participative decision making may be better
when time pressure is not acute
Other job and personal factors

Contingency Approach to
Leadership

This approach views that no single optimal

psychological profile of a leader exists; instead,
what a leader does is dependent upon
characteristics of the situation in which he or she
functions.

Situational Leadership Model an approach

to leadership that describes how leaders should
adjust their leadership style in response to their
subordinates evolving desire for achievement,
experience, ability, and willingness to accept
responsibility.

Situational Leadership

Leader Behaviours

Relationship Behaviour

(High)

rt
Pa

tin
ga
e
l
De

Se
llin
g

ng
at i
p
i
ic

S3

S2

Te
llin
g

S4

S1

(Low)

Task behaviour

(High)

Follower Readiness
R4

R3
Able and
willing

R2
Able and

Unable and

unwilling/

willing

apprehensive

High

R1

Moderate

Unable and
unwilling/
insecure

Low

Emerging Approaches to
Leadership
Transactional leaders
Leaders who determine what subordinates
need to do to achieve objectives, classify those
requirements, and help subordinates become
confident they can reach their objectives.
Transformational leaders
Leaders who, through their personal vision and
energy, inspire followers and have a major
impact on their organizations; also called
charismatic leaders.