Photogrammetry
(part of EE5358)
Dr. Venkat Devarajan
Ms. Kriti Chauhan
Photogrammetry
photo = "picture, grammetry = "measurement,
therefore photogrammetry = photo-measurement
Photogrammetry is the science or art of obtaining
reliable measurements by means of photographs.
Formal Definition:
Photogrammetry is the art, science and technology of obtaining reliable
information about physical objects and the environment, through
processes of recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic
images and patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and
other phenomena.
- As given by the American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
(ASPRS)
Chapter 1
03/06/16
Distinct Areas
Interpretative Photogrammetry
Metric Photogrammetry
2.
3.
Photographic
Interpretation
such
Remote
Sensing
(Includes use of multispectral
cameras, infrared cameras,
thermal scanners, etc.)
as
Chapter 1
03/06/16
Uses of Photogrammetry
Products of photogrammetry:
1.
2.
3.
Digital Elevation Maps (DEMs): an array of points in an area that have X, Y and Z
coordinates determined.
Current Applications:
1.
Land surveying
2.
Highway engineering
3.
Preparation of tax maps, soil maps, forest maps, geologic maps, maps for city
and regional planning and zoning
4.
5.
03/06/16
Types of photographs
Aerial
Terrestrial
Oblique
Vertical
Low oblique
(does not include horizon)
Truly Vertical
High oblique
(includes horizon)
Tilted
(1deg< angle < 3deg)
Chapter 1
03/06/16
03/06/16
Aerial Photography
Vertical aerial photographs are taken along parallel passes called flight strips.
Successive photographs along a flight strip overlap is called end lap 60%
Area of common coverage called stereoscopic overlap area.
Overlapping photos
called a stereopair.
Chapter 1
03/06/16
Aerial Photography
Position of camera at each exposure is called the exposure station.
Altitude of the camera at exposure time is called the flying height.
Lateral overlapping of adjacent flight strips is called a side lap (usually 30%).
Photographs of 2 or more sidelapping strips used to cover an area is referred to
as a block of photos.
Chapter 1
03/06/16
03/06/16
2.
3.
03/06/16
10
Chapter 3
03/06/16
11
03/06/16
12
13
14
Elements of Interior
Orientation
Elements of interior orientation are the parameters needed to determine accurate spatial
information from photographs. These are as follows:
1.
Calibrated focal length (CFL), the focal length that produces an overall mean
distribution of lens distortion.
2.
Symmetric radial lens distortion, the symmetric component of distortion that occurs
along radial lines from the principal point. Although negligible, theoretically always
present.
3.
4.
Principal point location, specified by coordinates of a principal point given wrt x and
y coordinates of the fiducial marks.
5.
15
Other Camera
Characteristics
Other camera characteristics that are often of significance are:
1.
Resolution for various distances from the principal point (highest near the
center, lowest at corners of photo)
2.
3.
Chapter 3
03/06/16
16
Camera Calibration:
General Approach
Step 1) Photograph an array of targets whose relative positions
are accurately known.
Step 2) Determine elements of interior orientation
Chapter 3
03/06/16
17
03/06/16
18
Photogrammetric Scanners
Photogrammetric scanners are the devices used to convert the content of
photographs from analog form (a continuous-tone image) to digital form (an
array of pixels with their gray levels quantified by numerical values).
Coordinate measurement on the acquired digital image can be done either
manually, or through automated image-processing algorithms.
Requirements: sufficient geometric and radiometric resolution, and high
geometric accuracy.
Geometric/spatial resolution indicates pixel size of resultant image. Smaller
the pixel size, greater the detail that can be detected in the image. For high
quality photogrammetric scanners, min pixel size is on the order of 5 to 15m
Radiometric resolution indicates the number of quantization levels. Min should
be 256 levels (8 bit); most scanners capable of 1024 levels (10 bit) or higher.
Geometric quality indicates the positional accuracy of pixels in the resultant
image. For high quality scanners, it is around 2 to 3 m.
Chapter 4
03/06/16
19
2.
3.
Lens distortions
4.
5.
6.
7.
Chapter 4
03/06/16
20
03/06/16
21
Analytical Photogrammetry
Definition: Analytical photogrammetry is the term used to describe the
rigorous mathematical calculation of coordinates of points in object space
based upon camera parameters, measured photo coordinates and ground
control.
forms the basis of many modern hardware and software system including
stereoplotters, digital terrain model generation, orthophoto production, digital
photo rectification and aerotriangulation.
Chapter 11
03/06/16
22
Image Measurement
Considerations
Before using the x and y photo coordinate pair, the following conditions should
be considered:
1.
Coordinates (usually in mm) are relative to the principal point - the origin.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Chapter 11
03/06/16
23
03/06/16
24
Collinearity Condition
The collinearity condition is illustrated in the figure below. The exposure station
of a photograph, an object point and its photo image all lie along a straight
line. Based on this condition we can develop complex mathematical relationships.
Appendix D
03/06/16
25
Let:
Collinearity Condition
Equations
26
Rotation Equations
27
x
X y
z
m11
M m21
m31
m12
m22
m32
m13
m23
m33
x'
X ' y '
z '
2.
03/06/16
28
03/06/16
29
Collinearity Equations
Using property of similar triangles:
xa '
ya '
za '
X A X L YA YL Z L Z A
XA XL
Y Y
Z ZL
za ' ; ya ' A L z a ' ; za ' A
z a '
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
L
L
L
A
A
A
xa '
XA XL '
Y Y
Z ZL '
z a m12 A L z a' m13 A
z a
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
L
L
L
A
A
A
xa m11
Now,
ya m21
XA XL '
Y Y
Z ZL '
z a m22 A L z a' m23 A
z a
Z A ZL
ZA ZL
ZA ZL
Z A ZL
and equate za=-f, to get:
ZA ZL '
z a
Z
Z
L
A
z a' m33
xa xo f
y a yo f
Appendix D
03/06/16
30
Review of Collinearity
Collinearity equations:
Equations
Collinearity equations:
m11 ( X A X L ) m12 (YA YL ) m13 ( Z A Z L )
xa xo f
involve 9 unknowns:
y a yo f
Where,
1.
2.
3.
03/06/16
32
Elements of Exterior
As already mentioned, the
collinearity conditions involve 9 unknowns:
Orientation
Exposure station attitude (omega, phi, kappa),
1)
2)
3)
Of these, we first need to compute the position and attitude of the exposure
station, also known as the elements of exterior orientation.
Thus the 6 elements of exterior orientation are:
1)
spatial position (XL, YL, ZL) of the camera and
2)
angular orientation (omega, phi, kappa) of the camera
All methods to determine elements of exterior orientation of a single tilted
photograph, require:
1) photographic images of at least three control points whose X, Y and Z
ground coordinates are known, and
2) calibrated focal length of the camera.
Chapter 10
03/06/16
33
Elements of Interior
Orientation
Elements of interior orientation which can be determined through camera calibration are
as follows:
1.
Calibrated focal length (CFL), the focal length that produces an overall mean
distribution of lens distortion. Better termed calibrated principal distance since it
represents the distance from the rear nodal point of the lens to the principal point of
the photograph, which is set as close to optical focal length of the lens as possible.
2.
3.
4.
Symmetric radial lens distortion, the symmetric component of distortion that occurs
along radial lines from the principal point. Although negligible, theoretically always
present.
5.
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34
03/06/16
35
Space Resection By
Collinearity
3 control points (min) give 6 equations: solution is unique, while 4 or more control points (more than
6 equations) allows a least squares solution (residual terms will exist)
Initial approximations are required for the unknown orientation parameters, since
the collinearity equations are nonlinear, and have been linearized using Taylors
theorem.
03/06/16
No. of points
No. of equations
Chapter 10 & 11
36
Coplanarity Condition
A similar condition to the collinearity condition, is coplanarity, which is the
condition that the two exposure stations of a stereopair, any object point and
its corresponding image points on the two photos, all lie in a common plane.
Like collinearity equations, the coplanarity equation is nonlinear and must be
linearized by using Taylors theorem. Linearization of the coplanarity equation
is somewhat more difficult than that of the collinearity equations.
But, coplanarity is not used nearly as extensively as collinearity in analytical
photogrammetry.
Space resection by collinearity is the only method still commonly used
to determine the elements of exterior orientation.
03/06/16
37
Initial Approximations
for Space Resection
Omega
and Phi angles: For the typical case of near-vertical photography, initial
values of omega and phi can be taken as zeros.
H:
03/06/16
Chapter 11 & 6
38
39
Photographic Scale
S = ab/AB = f/H
SAB = ab/AB = La/LA = Lo/LO = f/(H-h)
where
1)
S is scale of vertical photograph over a flat terrain
2)
3)
4)
5)
f is focal length
6)
7)
8)
9)
40
x and y ground coordinates of any point can be obtained by simply multiplying x and y
photo coordinates by the inverse of photo scale at that point.
This requires knowing
f, H and
A 2D conformal coordinate transformation (comprising rotation and translation) can then be performed,
which relates these ground coordinates computed from the vertical photo equations to the control
values:
Y = a.y + b.x + TY
We know (x,y) and (x,y) for n sets are known giving us 2n equations.
The 4 unknown transformation parameters (a, b, TX, TY) can therefore be calculated by least
squares. So essentially we are running the resection equations in a diluted mode with
initial values of as many parameters as we can find, to calculate the initial parameters of
those that cannot be easily estimated.
TX and TY are used as initial approximation for XL and YL, resp.
Rotation angle = tan-1(b/a) is used as approximation for (kappa).
Chapter 11
03/06/16
41
Calculate H (ZL)
2.
Compute ground coordinates from assumed vertical photo for the control points.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Summary of Initializations:
ZL ->flying height H
Chapter 11
03/06/16
42
03/06/16
43
Space Intersection By
Collinearity
Use: To determine object point coordinates for points that lie in the stereo overlap area of two
photographs that make up a stereopair.
Principle: Corresponding rays to the same object point from two photos of a stereopair must
intersect at the point.
44
Parallax Equations
Parallax Equations:
1)
pa = xa xa
2)
hA = H B.f/pa
3)
XA = B.xa/pa
4)
YA = B.ya/pa
where
hA is the elevation of point A above datum
H is the flying height above datum
B is the air base (distance between the exposure stations)
f is the focal length of the camera
pa is the parallax of point A
XA and YA are ground coordinates of point A in the
coordinate system with origin at the datum point P of
the Lpho, X axis is in same vertical plane as x and x
flight axes and Y axis passes through the datum point
of the Lpho and is perpendicular to the X axis
xa and ya are the photo coordinates of point a measured wrt
the flight line axes on the left photo
03/06/16
Chapter 8
45
The resulting coordinates from the parallax equations are in the arbitrary
ground coordinate system.
To convert them to, for instance WGS84, a conformal coordinate transformation
is used.
Chapter 11
03/06/16
46
03/06/16
47
Analytical Stereomodel
Aerial photographs for most applications are taken so that adjacent photos overlap by
more than 50%. Two adjacent photographs that overlap in this manner form a
stereopair.
Object points that appear in the overlap area of a stereopair constitute a stereomodel.
The mathematical calculation of 3D ground coordinates of points in the stereomodel by
analytical photogrammetric techniques forms an analytical stereomodel.
2.
Relative (exterior) orientation: Determines the relative angular attitude and positional
displacement between the photographs that existed when the photos were taken.
3.
Absolute (exterior) orientation: Determines the absolute angular attitude and positions
of both photographs.
After these three steps are achieved, points in the analytical stereomodel will have object
coordinates in the ground coordinate system.
Chapter 11
03/06/16
48
Analytical Relative
Orientation
Analytical relative orientation involves defining (assuming) certain elements of exterior orientation
and calculating the remaining ones.
Initialization:
If the parameters are set to the values
mentioned (i.e., 1=1=1=XL1=YL1=0,
ZL1=f, XL2=b),
Then the scale of the stereomodel is
approximately equal to photo scale.
Now, x and y photo coordinates of the
left photo are good approximations for X
and Y object space coordinates, and
zeros are good approximations for Z
object space coordinates.
Chapter 11
03/06/16
49
1)
2)
3)
4)
Analytical Relative
Orientation
All exterior orientation elements, excluding ZL1 of the left photo of the stereopair are
set to zero values.
For convenience, ZL of left photo (ZL1) is set to f and XL of right photo (XL2) is set to
photo base b.
This leaves 5 elements of the right photo that must be determined.
Using collinearity condition, min of 5 object points are required to solve for the
unknowns, since each point used in relative orientation is net gain of one equation for
the overall solution (since their X,Y and Z coordinates are unknowns too)
No. of points in overlap
No. of equations
No. of unknowns
4 (2+2)
5+3=8
4+4=8
8 + 3 = 11
8 + 4 = 12
11 + 3 = 14
12 + 4 = 16
14 + 3 = 17
16 + 4 =20
17 + 3 =20
20 + 4 = 24
20 + 3 = 23
Chapter 11
03/06/16
51
Analytical Absolute
Orientation
Stereomodel coordinates of tie points are related to their 3D coordinates in a (real, earth based)
ground coordinate system. For small stereomodel such as that computed from one stereopair,
analytical absolute orientation can be performed using a 3D conformal coordinate transformation.
Requires minimum of two horizontal and three vertical control points. (20 equations with 8 unknowns
plus the 12 exposure station parameters for the two photos:closed form solution). Additional control
points provide redundancy, enabling a least squares solution.
(horizontal control: the position of the point in object space is known wrt a horizontal datum;
vertical control: the elevation of the point is known wrt a vertical datum)
Once the transformation parameters have been computed, they can be applied to the remaining
stereomodel points, including the X L, YL and ZL coordinates of the left and right photographs. This
gives the coordinates of all stereomodel points in the ground system.
No. of equations
1 unknown Z value
12 exterior orientation
parameters + 1 = 13
12 + 2 = 14
4 * 2 = 8 equations
1*2=2
12 + 2 = 14
4 * 3 = 12 equations
2*3=6
12 + 6 = 18
2 horizontal + 3 vertical
control points
8 + 12 = 20 equations
2+6=8
12 + 8 = 20
03/06/16
Chapter 16 & 11
52
03/06/16
53
With the inclusion of the extra unknowns, it follows that additional independent
equations will be needed to obtain a solution.
Chapter 11
03/06/16
54
03/06/16
55
Ground Control
for Aerial Photogrammetry
Ground control consists of any points
They must be sharp, well defined and positively identified on all photos, and
2.
Chapter 16
03/06/16
56
Chapter 16
03/06/16
57
Chapter 16
03/06/16
58
03/06/16
59
Aerotriangulation
It is the process of determining the X, Y, and Z ground coordinates of
individual points based on photo coordinate measurements.
consists
Chapter 17
03/06/16
60
Chapter 17
03/06/16
61
Analytical Aerotriangulation
The most elementary approach consists of the following basic steps:
1.
2.
3.
62
Analytical Aerotriangulation
Several variations exist. Technique
Basically, all methods consist of writing equations that express the unknown
elements of exterior orientation of each photo in terms of camera constants,
measured photo coordinates, and ground coordinates.
By far the most common condition equations used are the collinearity
equations.
Chapter 17
03/06/16
63
Simultaneous Bundle
Adjusting all photogrammetric measurements to ground control values
Adjustment
in a single solution is known as a bundle adjustment. The process is so
named because of the many light rays that pass through each lens
position constituting a bundle of rays.
The bundles from all photos are adjusted simultaneously so that
corresponding light rays intersect at positions of the pass points and
control points on the ground.
After the normal equations have been formed, they are solved for the
unknown corrections to the initial approximations for exterior orientation
parameters and object space coordinates.
The corrections are then added to the approximations, and the
procedure is repeated until the estimated standard deviation of unit
weight converges.
Chapter 17
03/06/16
64
Quantities in Bundle
Adjustment
Chapter 17
03/06/16
65
Bundle Adjustment on a
Consider a small block consisting
of 2 strips
with 4 photos per strip, with 20 pass
Photo
Block
points and 6 control points, totaling 26 object points; with 6 of those also serving
as tie points connecting the two adjacent strips.
Chapter 17
03/06/16
66
Bundle Adjustment on a
Photo Block
To repeat, consider a small block consisting of 2 strips with 4 photos per strip, with 20 pass points and
6 control points, totaling 26 object points; with 6 of those also serving as tie points connecting the
two adjacent strips.
In this case,
The number of unknown object coordinates
= no. of object points X no. of coordinates per object point = 26X3 = 78
The number of unknown exterior orientation parameters
= no. of photos X no. of exterior orientation parameters per photo = 8X6 = 48
Total number of unknowns = 78 + 48 = 126
The number of photo coordinate observations
= no. of imaged points X no. of photo coordinates per point = 76 X 2 = 152
The number of ground control observations
= no. of 3D control points X no. of coordinates per point = 6X3 = 18
The number of exterior orientation parameters
= no. of photos X no. of exterior orientation parameters per photo = 8X6 = 48
If all 3 types of observations are included, there will be a total of 152+18+48=218 observations; but if
only the first two types are included, there will be only 152+18=170 observations
Thus, regardless of whether exterior orientation parameters were observed, a least squares solution is
possible since the number of observations in either case (218 and 170) is greater than the number
of unknowns (126 and 78, respectively).
Chapter 17
03/06/16
67
03/06/16
68
Relevant Definitions
Observations are the directly observed (or measured) quantities which
contain random errors.
True Value is the theoretically correct or exact value of a quantity. It can never
be determined, because no matter how accurate, the observation will always
contain small random errors.
Accuracy is the degree of conformity to the true value.
Since true value of a continuous physical quantity can never be known,
accuracy is likewise never known. Therefore, it can only be estimated.
Sometimes, accuracy can be assessed by checking against an independent,
higher accuracy standard.
Precision is the degree of refinement of quantity.
The level of precision can be assessed by making repeated measurements
and checking the consistency of the values.
If the values are very close to each other, the measurements have high
precision and vice versa.
03/06/16
Appendix A & B
69
Relevant Definitions
Error is the difference between any measured quantity and the true value for that
quantity.
Types of errors
x
MPV
m
03/06/16
Appendix A & B
70
Relevant Definitions
Residual is the difference between any measured quantity and the most probable
value for that quantity.
It is the value which is dealt with in adjustment computations, since errors are
indeterminate. The term error is frequently used when residual is in fact meant.
Degrees of freedom is the number of redundant observations (those in excess of
the number actually needed to calculate the unknowns).
Weight is the relative worth of an observation compared to nay other observation.
Measurements are weighted in adjustment computations according to their
precisions.
Logically, a precisely measured value should be weighted more in an adjustment
so that the correction it receives is smaller than that received by less precise
measurements.
If same equipment and procedures are used on a group of measurements, each
observation is given an equal weight.
Appendix B
03/06/16
71
Relevant Definitions
Standard deviation (also called root mean square error or 68 percent error) is a
quantity used to express the precision of a group of measurements.
For m number of direct, equally weighted observations of a quantity, its standard
deviation is:
v2
S
r
Appendix B
03/06/16
72
2 v 2 v 2 v 2 ... v 2 minimum
m
vi 1 2 3
i 1
2.
03/06/16
73
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Solve normal equations to obtain the most probable values for the
unknowns.
Appendix B
03/06/16
74
Let:
AB be a line segment
3y
x
Corresponding
Observation Eqns:
x + 3y = 10.1 + v1
2y = 6.2 + v3
x + 2y = 6.9 + v2
2x + y = 4.8 + v4
03/06/16
Note:
If D is not the exact midpoint and E
& F do not trisect the into exactly
equal parts,
Actual x and y values may differ
from segment to segment.
We only get the most probable
values for x and y!
75
Formulating Equations
Step 1) Observation Equations (one for each measurement) :
(include a residual for each observation)
x 3 y 10.1 v1
x 2 y 6.9 v2
2 y 6.2 v3
2 x y 4.8 v4
Step 2) Equation for each residual error from corresponding observation
v1 x 3 y 10.1
v2 x 2 y 6.9
v3 2 y 6.2
v4 2 x y 4.8
Step 3) Square and add residuals :
v 2 v12 v22 v32 v42
( x 3 y 10.1) 2 ( x 2 y 6.9) 2 (2 y 6.2) 2 (2 x y 4.8) 2
03/06/16
76
v2
2( x 3 y 10.1) 2( x 2 y 6.9) 0 2(2 x y 4.8) * 2
x
v2
2( x 3 y 10.1) * 3 2( x 2 y 6.9) * 2 2(2 y 6.2) * 2 2( 2 x y 4.8)
y
Normal Equations :
14 36 y 122.6
7 18
x 6 7
y 7 18
03/06/16
x 26.6
y 61.3
26.6 0.8424
61.3 3.0780
77
(equations I)
78
(a a
i1 i1
i 1
(a
i 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
i 2 i1
i 1
m
(a
(equations II)
i 3 i1
i 1
(a
i 1
i 1
i 1
i 1
im i1
i 1
79
n
1
1
1
A
X
V
m
n
m
m
( AT A) X AT L
X ( AT A) 1 ( AT L)
where:
a11
a
21
n
m A a31
...
am1
a12
a22
a32
...
am 2
a13
a23
a33
...
am 3
...
...
...
...
...
a1n
a2 n
a3n
...
amn
X1
X
2
1
n X X3
X n
L1
L
2
1
n L L3
Ln
v1
v
2
1
nV v3
vn
Appendix B
03/06/16
80
Standard Deviation of
residuals
V AX L
V TV
S0
r
S xi S 0 QX i X i
where,
r is the number of degrees of freedom and equals the number of observation minus the
number of unknowns i.e. r = m n
SXi is the standard deviation of the ith adjusted quantity, i.e., the quantity in the ith row of the
X matrix
S0 is the standard deviation of unit weight
QXiXi is the element in the ith row and the ith column of the matrix (ATA)-1 in the unweighted
case or the matrix (ATWA)-1
Appendix B
03/06/16
81
Standard Deviations in
Example
For our example problem, we
find the standard deviation of
x and y to be:
Sx=0.2016 and Sy=0.3492
v1 1 3
10.1
v 1 2 x 6.9
V AX L 2
v3 0 2 y 6.2
4.8
v4 2 1
v1 1 3
10.1 0.0236
v 1 2 0.8424 6.9 0.0984
v
2
1
4
.
8
0
.
0372
V TV
S0
0.0823
r
6 7
AT A
7 18
S xi S 0 Q X i X i
S x S 0 * 6 and S y S 0 * 18
S x 0.2016 and S y 0.3492
03/06/16
82
03/06/16
83
Review of Collinearity
Collinearity equations:
Equations
Collinearity equations:
m11 ( X A X L ) m12 (YA YL ) m13 ( Z A Z L )
xa xo f
y a yo f
Where,
involve 9 unknowns:
1.
2.
3.
Linearization of Collinearity
Equations
Rewriting the collinearity equations:
r
F xo f xa
q
s
G yo f y a
q
where
Applying Taylors theorem to these equations (using only upto first order
partial derivatives), we get
Appendix D
03/06/16
86
Linearized Collinearity
F
F
F
F
F
dX
dY
d
F
d Equations
d
Terms
X
Y
0
F
Z L
F
F
F
dZ L
dX A
dYA
dZ A xa
Z
A 0
A 0
A 0
0
G
G
G
G
d
d
d
0
0
0
X L
G
Z L
G0
G
dX L
0
YL
dYL
0
G
G
G
dZ L
dX A
dYA
dZ A ya
0
X A 0
YA 0
Z A 0
where
F0, G0: functions of F and G evaluated at the initial approximations for the 9
unknowns;
F F G G
,
, etc.,
,
,
0
0
0
0
Appendix D
03/06/16
87
Simplified Linearized
Collinearity Equations
Since photo coordinates xa and ya are measured values, if the equations are to be used
in a least squares solution, residual terms must be included to make the equations
consistent.
The following simplified forms of the linearized collinearity equations include these
residuals:
In linearization using Taylors series, higher order terms are ignored, hence
these equations are approximations.
They are solved iteratively, until the magnitudes of corrections to initial
approximations become negligible.
Chapter 11
03/06/16
88
03/06/16
89
Generalizing Collinearity
Equations
The observation equations which are the foundation of a bundle adjustment are the
collinearity equations:
xij xo f
yij yo f
Where,
xij, yij are the measured photo coordinates of the image of point j on photo i related to the
fiducial axis system
Xj, Yj, Zj are coordinates of point j in object space
XLi, YLi, ZLi are the coordinates of the eyepoint of the camera
f is the camera focal length
xo, yo are the coordinates of the principal point
m11i, m12i, ..., m33i are the rotation matrix terms for photo i
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B ij
Linearized Equations in
Form
B Matrix
V
.
..
..
ij
ij
ij
b14ij
B ij
b24ij
..
b15ij
b25ij
b16ij
b26ij
di
d
i
.
d i
i
dX
Li
dYL
i
dZ
Li
dX j
j dY j
dZ j
..
J ij
ij
K
ij
v xij
Vij
v
y ij
Matrix B ij contains the partial derivatives of the collinearity equations with respect to the exterior
orientation parameters of photo i, evaluated at the initial approximations.
..
Matrix B ij contains the partial derivatives of the collinearity equations with respect to the object space
coordinates of point j, evaluated at the initial approximations.
.
Matrix i contains corrections for the initial approximations of the exterior orientation parameters for
photo i.
..
Matrix j contains corrections for the initial approximations of the object space coordinates of point j.
ij
Matrix
contains measured minus computed x and y photo coordinates for point j on photo i.
91
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Proper weights must be assigned to photo coordinate observations in order to be included in the
bundle adjustment.
Expressed in matrix form, the weights for x and y photo coordinate observations of point j on photo i
are:
1
yij
yij xij
where o2 is the reference variance; x2ij and y2ij are variances in x ij and y ij ,
respectively; and x ij yij yijx ij is the covariance of x ij with y ij .
Wij
1
y2ij
Ch. 17
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93
Ground Control
X j X 00
j vX j
Yj Y
00
j
vY j
Z j Z 00
j vZ j
where
X j , Yj and Z j are unknown coordinates of point j
00
00
X 00
j , Yj and Z j are the measured coordinate values for point j
Even though ground control observation equations are linear, in order to be consistent with the
collinearity equations, they will also be approximated by the first-order terms of Taylors series:
X 0j dX j X 00
j vX j
Y j0 dY j Y j00 vY j
Z 0j dZ j Z 00
j vZ j
where
X 0j , Yj0 and Z0j are the initial approximations for the coordinates of point j
dX j , dYj and dZ j are corrections to the approximations for the coordinates
of point j
where
..
..
..
j C j Vj
dX j
j dY j
dZ j
..
X 00j X 0j
C j Y j00 Y j0
Z 00j Z 0j
..
vX
j
V j vY j
v
Zj
..
Ch. 17
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As with photo coordinate measurements, proper weights must be assigned to ground control
coordinate observations in order to be included in the bundle adjustment. Expressed in matrix form,
the weights for X, Y and Z ground control coordinate observations of point j are:
X2
j
W j o2 Y j X j
ZjX j
..
X jY j
Y2j
Z jY j
X jZ j
YjZ j
Z2 j
where
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95
Exterior Orientation
Parameters
The final type of observation consists of measurements of exterior orientation parameters. The form of
their observation equations is similar to that of ground control:
i i00 vi
i i00 vi
i i00 v i
X Li X L00i v X Li
Z Li Z L00i vZ Li
The weight matrix for exterior orientation parameters has the following form:
i i
.
i i
Wi
X L ii
YLii
Z L ii
2
i
i i
2i
i i
X L i i
i i
i i
2i
X L i i
Z L i i
Z L i i
YL ii
YL i i
i X L i
i X L i
i X Li
X2 Li
iYLi
iYL i
iYLi
X L iYL i
Z Li X Li
Z L iYL i
YL i X L i
Y2Li
i Z L i
i Z L i
i Z Li
X Li Z Li
YL i Z L i
2
Z Li
Ch. 17
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Normal Equations
With the observation equations and weights defined as previously, the full set of normal equations
may be formed directly.
In matrix form, the full normal equations are:
N1W 1
6
60
N 2 W 2
T
11
T
21
T
06
...
06
N 11
N 12
N 13
...
N 1n
06
...
06
N 21
N 22
N 23
...
N 2n
6
60
...
N 31
...
N 32
...
N 33
...
...
...
N 3n
...
N m1
N m2
N m3
...
N 3 W 3 ...
...
...
6
T
31
N 32
T
13
T
23
T
33
N 1n
N
...
. T
N 2n
.
N i B ij Wij B ij
j 1
...
N 22
... N 3 W 3
N 12
N
...
where:
6
60
...
06
6
60
...
6
N K
...
N
...
T
N 3n
. T
T
m1
T
...
N mn
3
30
3
30
m .. T
..
..
..
3
30
...
3
30
..
03
...
. T
K i B ij Wij ij
j 1
..
1 W1 C1
K
.
.
.
K 2 W1 C 2
.. m
1
..
2
..
3
..
n
3
..
K 3 W1 C3
... N n W n
3
30
. 1
2
N mn
...
N 3 W 3 ...
...
...
03
...
N j B ij Wij B ij
i 1
N 2 W 2
03
...
..
..
3
30
T
m3
N
...
..
N1W 1
N m2
...
...
N ij B ij Wij B ij
..
m
K K..m W.. m C
..
1 W1 C1
K
..
..
..
K 2 W 2 C2
..
..
..
K 3 W 3 C3
..
..
..
K n W n C n
m .. T
K j B ij Wij ij
i 1
m is the number of photos, n is the number of points, i is the photo subscript, and j is the point subscript
If point j does not appear on photo i, corresponding submatrix will be a zero matrix.
.
..
..
W i contributions to N matrix and W i Ci contributions to K matrix are made only when observations for exterior orientation parameters exist.
..
W j contributions to N matrix and W j C j contributions to K matrix are made only for ground control point observations.
Ch. 17
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2.
The GPS recorder records data at uniform time intervals called epochs
(which may be on the order of 1s each), but the camera shutter operates
asynchronously wrt the GPS fixes.
3.
If a GPS receiver operating in the kinematic mode loses lock on too many
satellites, the integer ambiguities must be redetermined.
Chapter 17
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Additional Precautions
regarding Airborne GPS
First, it is recommended that a bundle adjustment with analytical self-calibration
be employed when airborne GPS control is used.
Often, due to inadequate modeling of atmospheric refraction distortion, strict
enforcement of the calibrated principal distance (focal length) of the camera will
cause distortions and excessive residuals in photo coordinates. Use of analytical
self-calibration will essentially eliminate that effect.
Chapter 17
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Aerotriangulation with
linear sensor arrays
that scan an image
strip while the satellite orbits.
Satellite
Images
Each scan line of the scene has its own set of exterior orientation
parameters, principal point in the center of the line.
The start position is the projection of the center of row 0 (of an image
with m columns and n rows) on the ground.
Since, the satellite is highly stable during acquisition of the image, the
exterior orientation parameters can be assumed to vary in a
systematic fashion.
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Gene, Grodecki (2002)
106
Aerotriangulation with
The exterior orientation parameters vary systematically as functions of the x
coordinate:
Satellite Images
x = 0 + a1.x; x = 0 + a2.x; x = 0 + a3.x;
XLx =XL0 + a4.x; YLx = YL0 +a5.x; ZLx = ZL0 + a6.x
+ a7.x2
Here,
x is the row no. of some image position,
x, x, x, XLx, YLx, ZLx, are the exterior orientation
parameters of the sensor when row x was
acquired,
0, 0, 0, XL0, YL0, ZL0, are the exterior orientation
parameters of the sensor at the start position, and
a1 through a7 are coefficients which describe the
systematic variations of the exterior orientation
parameters as the image is acquired.
Chapter 17
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Introduction to RPCs
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110
Separate rational functions are used to express the object-space to line and the objectspace to sample coordinates relationship.
Assume that (,,h) are geodetic latitude, longitude and height above WGS84 ellipsoid in
degrees, degrees and meters, respectively of a ground point and
(Line, Sample) are denormalized image space coordinates of the corresponding image
point
To improve numerical precision, image-space and object-space coordinates are
normalized to <-1,+1>
Given the object-space coordinates (,,h) and the latitude, longitude and height offsets
and scale factors, we can normalize latitude, longitude and height:
P = ( LAT_OFF) / LAT_SCALE
L = ( LONG_OFF) / LONG_SCALE
H = (h HEIGHT_OFF) / HEIGHT_SCALE
The normalized line and sample image-space coordinates (Y and X, respectively) are
then calculated from their respective rational polynomial functions f(.) and g(.)
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Definition of RPC
Coefficients
Y = f(,,h) = NumL(P,L,H) / DenL(P,L,H) = cTu / dTu
NumL(P,L,H) = c1 + c2.L + c3.P + c4.H + c5.L.P + c6.L.H + c7.P.H + c8.L2 + c9.P2 + c10.H2 + c11.P.L.H + c12.L3
+ c13.L.P2 + c14.L.H2 + c15.L2.P + c16.P3 + c17.P.H2 + c18.L2.H + c19.P2.H + c20.H3
DenL(P,L,H) = 1 + d2.L + d3.P + d4.H + d5.L.P + d6.L.H + d7.P.H + d8.L2 + d9.P2 + d10.H2 + d11.P.L.H + d12.L3
+ d13.L.P2 + d14.L.H2 + d15.L2.P + d16.P3 + d17.P.H2 + d18.L2.H + d19.P2.H + d20.H3
NumS(P,L,H) = e1 + e2.L + e3.P + e4.H + e5.L.P + e6.L.H + e7.P.H + e8.L2 + e9.P2 + e10.H2 + e11.P.L.H +
e12.L3 + e13.L.P2 + e14.L.H2 + e15.L2.P + e16.P3 + e17.P.H2 + e18.L2.H + e19.P2.H + e20.H3
DenS(P,L,H) = 1 + f2.L + f3.P + f4.H + f5.L.P + f6.L.H + f7.P.H + f8.L2 + f9.P2 + f10.H2 + f11.P.L.H + f12.L3 +
f13.L.P2 + f14.L.H2 + f15.L2.P + f16.P3 + f17.P.H2 + f18.L2.H + f19.P2.H + f20.H3
There are 78 rational polynomial coefficients
u = [1 L P H LP LH PH L2 P2 H2 PLH L3 LP2 LH2 L2P P3 PH2 L2H P2H H3]
c = [c1 c2 c20]T; d = [1 d2 d20]T; e = [e1 e2 e20]T; f=[1 f2 f20]T
112
Linei(j) and Samplei(j) are measured (on image j) line and sample coordinates of the ith
image point, corresponding to the kth ground control or tie point with object space
coordinates (k,k,hk)
p(j) and r(j) are the adjustable functions expressing the differences between the
measured and the nominal line and sample coordinates of ground control and/or tie
points, for image j
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For the kth ground control being the ith tie point on the jth image, the RPC block adjustment
equations are:
FLi Linei( j ) p ( j ) p ( j ) (k , k , hk ) Li 0
FSi Sample
( j)
i
with:
p
r
( j)
( j)
( j)
r (k , k , hk ) Si 0
( j)
( j)
( j)
0
a .Sample i a .Line
( j)
0
b .Sample i b .Line
( j)
S
( j)
S
( j)
( j)
L
( j)
L
(Observation equations)
( j)
i
( j)
i
( j)
Since true image coordinates are not known, values of the measured image coordinates are used
instead.
Effect of using approximate values is negligible because measurements of image coordinates are
performed with sub-pixel accuracy.
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Li
Si
where:
FLi0 a .Line p (k 0 , k 0 , hk 0 )
Fi0
( j)
( j)
( j)
( j ) wPi
FSi0 Samplei b0 0 bS 0 .Samplei
b ( j ) .Line ( j ) r ( j ) ( , , h )
L0
i
k0
k0
k0
( j)
L0
( j)
i
( j)
And
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F
F
Li
T
dFLi x
dFi
dFSi FSi
xT
x0
dx
x0
Li
T
A x0
FSi
T
x A
x0
Li
T
G x0
FSi
xGT
dx A
dx AAi
G
x0
dx A
dx
G
AGi
x A0
dx A
T
dx
;
x
;
dx
dh
...
d
dh
0
G
1
1
1
m
p
m
p
m
dxG
xG0
dx A da0(1) daS(1) daL(1) db0(1) dbS(1) dbL(1) ... da0( n ) daS( n ) da L( n ) db0( n ) dbS( n ) dbL( n )
120
As a consequence of the previous reductions, the RPC block adjustment model in matrix form reads
AA
I
AG
wP
dx A
0
wA
dx
wG
I G
or, A dx w
0...0 1 Samplei( j )
AAi
0
0...0 0
0...0
AGi
0...0
FLi
k
FSi
k
x0
FLi
k
x0
FSi
k
Linei( j )
0
x0
FLi
hk
x0
FSi
hk
Cw 0
0
0
0
1 Samplei( j )
CA
0
0
CG
0
Linei( j )
0...0
0...0
AA
AA1
AAi
AG1
AG
AGi
0...0
x0
0...0
x0
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wPi is the sub-vector of misclosures for the image-space coordinates of the ith
image point on the jth image
wP1
Linei( j ) a0( 0j ) aS( 0j ) .Samplei( j ) aL( 0j ) .Linei( j ) p ( j ) (k 0 , k 0 , hk 0 )
; wP
wP
( j)
( j)
( j)
( j)
( j)
( j)
( j)
i
wPi
Sample
b
.
Sample
b
.
Line
r
(
,
h
)
i
00
S0
i
L0
i
k0
k0
k 0
wA=0 is the vector of misclosures for the image adjustment parameters,
wG=0 is the vector of misclosures for the object space coordinates,
CP is the a priori covariance matrix of image-space coordinates,
CA is the a priori covariance matrix of the image adjustment parameters,
CG is the a priori covariance matrix of object-space coordinates
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A Priori Constraints
This block adjustment model allows the introduction of a priori information using the
Bayesian estimation approach, which blurs the distinction between observables and
unknowns both are treated as random quantities.
In the context of least squares , a priori information is introduced in the form of weighted
constraints. A priori uncertainty is expressed by CA, CP, and CG.
CA: uncertainty of a priori knowledge of the image adjustment parameters.
In an offset only model, the diagonal elements of CA (the variances of a0 and b0), express the
uncertainty of a priori satellite attitude and ephemeris.
CP: prior knowledge of image-space coordinates for ground control and tie points.
Line and sample variances in CP are set according to the accuracy of the image
measurement process.
CG: prior knowledge of object-space coordinates for ground control and tie points.
In the absence of any prior knowledge of the object coordinates for tie points, the
corresponding entries in CG can be made large (like 10,000m) to produce no significant bias.
One could also remove the weighted constraints for object coordinates of tie points from the
observation equations. But being able to introduce prior information for the object
coordinates of tie points adds flexibility.
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A C
dx
T
1
w
AT C w1 w
x0 dx
x
The least squares estimation is repeated until convergence is reached.
The covariance matrix of the estimated model parameters is:
C x AT C w1 A
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Experimental Results
Average Error
Longitude (in m)
Average Error
Latitude (in m)
Average Error
Height (in m)
Standard
Deviation
Longitude (in m)
Standard
Deviation Latitude
(in m)
Standard
Deviation Height
(in m)
None
-5.0
6.2
1.6
0.97
1.08
2.02
1 in center
-2.0
0.5
-1.1
0.95
1.07
2.02
3 on edge
-0.4
0.3
0.2
0.97
1.06
1.96
4 in corners
-0.2
0.3
0.0
0.95
1.06
1.95
All 40 GCPs
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.55
0.75
0.50
When all 40 GCPs are used, the ground control overwhelms the tie points and the a priori constraints, thus,
effectively adjusting each strip separately such that it minimizes control point errors on that individual strip.
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RPC - Conclusion
Due to the high accuracy of IKONOS, even without ground control, block
adjustment can be accomplished in the image space.
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130
Summary
The mathematical concepts covered today were:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Aerotriangulation
8.
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Terms
A lot of the terminology is such that can sometimes cause confusion. For
instance, while pass points and tie points mean the same thing, (ground)
control points refer to tie points whose coordinates in the object
space/ground control coordinate system are known, while the term check
points refers to points that are treated as tie points, but whose actual
ground coordinates are very accurately known.
Below are some more terms used in photogrammetry, along with their brief
descriptions:
1. stereopair: two adjacent photographs that overlap by more than 50%
2. space resection: finding the 6 elements of exterior orientation
3. space intersection: finding object point coordinates for points in stereo
overlap
4.
5.
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Terms
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
horizontal tie points: tie pts whose X and Y coordinates are known.
12.
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There is a variety of software solutions available in the market today to perform all the
functionalities that we have seen today. The following is a list of a few of them:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
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References
1.
2.
3.
4.
Wikipedia
5.
6.
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