Application of High voltages in production of X-Rays.

Parts of X-Rays
machine.

Group Members
Waseem Ahmad
11-EE-70
Nadeel Hussain
11-EE-94

Presentation
Economical Considerations
of Electrical Power
Engineering.

Economics of Power Generation

The art of determining the per
unit (i.e., one KWh) cost of
production of electrical energy is
known as Economics of Power
Generation.

Interest
The cost of use of money is known as Interest. The
rate of interest depends upon market position and others
factors, and may vary from 4% to 8% per annum.

Depreciation
The decrease in the value of power plant
equipments and building due to constant use is
known as depreciation. For the time the power
station is installed, its equipment steadily
deteriorates due to wear and tear so that there is a
gradual reduction in value of the plant. This
reduction is called annual depreciation.

Cost of Electrical Energy

Total cost of electrical energy generated can be divided into three parts.
(i) Fixed Cost (ii) Semi-fixed cost (iii) Running or operating cost
(i) Fixed cost
It is the cost which independent of maximum demand and unit
generated.
(ii) Semi-fixed cost
It is the cost which depends upon maximum demand but is
independent of unit generated.
(iii) Running or operating cost
It is the cost which depends only upon the number of units
generated.

Expressions for cost of electrical

energy

Expressions for cost of

electrical energy Continued

Methods of Determining
Depreciation

Straight Line method

continued
Graphical Representation

Diminishing Value Method

Definition
In this method
depreciation charge is made
every year at a fixed rate on
the diminished value of
equipment.

Graph

Expression

Expression continude

Sinking fund method

2.2 Three- phase controlled (controllable) rectifier

2.2.1 Three- phase half- wave controlled rectifier
Resistive load, = 0
u2
T

VT1

VT2

c
ud
R

VT3

O t1

ua

ub

t2

uc

t3

uG
ud

O
iVT1

O
uVT1
O

id

Common-cathode connection
Natural commutation point

t
uab

uac

Resistive load, = 30
u2

ua

ub

uc

VT1

VT2

c
ud
R

id

uG

O
ud

VT3 O

t1

iVT1

O
uVT1 u

ac

t
uab

uac

Resistive load, = 60
u2

ub

uc

VT1

VT2 uG

c
ud
R

ua

id

VT3 uO

O
iVT

Resistive load, quantitative analysis

When 30 , load current id is continuous.

1
Ud
2
3

2U 2 sin td (t )

3 6
U 2 cos 1.17U 2 cos 2-18
2

When > 30 , load current id is discontinuous.

Ud

1
2
3

2U 2 sin td (t )

Average load current

Thyristor voltages

3 2

U 2 1 cos( ) 0.675 1 cos( )

2
6
6

Id

Ud
R

2-20

1.2
1.17
0.8

Ud/U2

1
3

0 .4
2
0

30

90
60
/( )

120

150

(2-19)

Inductive load, L is large enough

ua

ud
O

uc

ia

b
eL
ud
VT2
c
VT3

ub

id

ib

R ic
id
uVT1
O

uac

uab

uac

1
Ud
2
3

3 6
2U 2 sin td (t ) U 2 cos 1.17U 2 cos 2-18
2

Thyristor voltage and currents, transformer current :

I 2 I VT

1
I d 0.577 I d 2-23
3

U FM U RM 2.45U 2

2-25

I VT(AV)

I VT
0.368I d 2-24
1.57

2.2.2 Three- phase bridge fully-controlled rectifier

Circuit diagram
ia
T
n

VT1 VT3 VT5 d 1

id
a
b

load

ud

VT4 VT6 VT 2 d 2

Common- cathode group and common- anode group of thyristors

Numbering of the 6 thyristors indicates the trigger sequence.

Resistive load, = 0

ia
T
n

VT1 VT3 VT5 d 1

id
a
b

load

VT4 VT6 VT 2 d 2

ud

u2 = 0 ua
ud1

ub

uc

O t1

ud2
u2L
ud

I
uab

II
uac

III
ubc

IV
uba

V
uca

VI
ucb

uab

uac

iVT

O
uVT
1

uab

uac

ubc

uba

uca

ucb

uab

uac

uab

uac

Resistive load, = 30

ia
T
n

VT1 VT3 VT5 d 1

id
a
b

load

VT4 VT6 VT 2 d 2

ud

= 30 ua

ud1

ub

uc

O t1
ud2
ud

t
II III IV V VI

uab uac ubc uba uca ucb uab uac

uVT

u ab u
ac u bc u ba u ca ucb u ab u ac

ia
O

uab

uac

Resistive load, = 60

ia
T
n

VT1 VT3 VT5 d 1

id
a
b

load

VT4 VT6 VT 2 d 2

ud

u d1

= 60

ub

ua

uc

t1

O
u d2
ud

u ab

I
uac

II
u bc

III
uba

IV
u ca

V
u cb

VI
u ab

uac

u VT

uac

u ac

uab

Resistive load, = 90

T
n

VT1 VT3 VT5 d 1

id
a
b

load

VT4 VT6 VT 2 d 2

ud

ud1

ua

ub

uc

ua

ub

O
ud2
ud

t
uab uac ubc uba uca ucb uab uac ubc uba

id
O

O
ia

iVT1

Inductive load, = 0

ia
T
n

VT1 VT3 VT5 d 1

id
a
b

load

VT4 VT6 VT 2 d 2

ud

u2 = 0 ua
ud1

ub

uc

O t1
ud2
u2L
ud

I
II
uab uac

t
III IV V VI
ubc uba uca ucb uab uac

id
O
iVT

Inductive load, = 30

T
n

VT1 VT3 VT5 d 1

id
a
b

load

VT4 VT6 VT 2 d 2

ud

ud1

O
ud2
ud

= 30
ua

ub

uc

t1

t
I
uab

II
uac

III
ubc

IV
uba

V
uca

VI
ucb

uab

uac

id
O
ia

Inductive load, = 90

ia
T
n

VT1 VT3 VT5 d 1

id
a
b

load

VT4 VT6 VT 2 d 2

ud

ud1

= 90

ud

uc

ua

t1

O
ud2

ub

uab

II
I
uac ubc

t
III
uba

IV
uca

V
ucb

VI
uab

uVT

uac

uac

uac

O
uab

Quantitative analysis
Average output voltage:
1 23
U d
6U 2 sin td (t ) 2.34U 2 cos
2-26
3
3
For resistive load, When a > 60, load current id is discontinuous.
3

U d 6U 2 sin td (t ) 2.34U 2 1 cos( )

2-27

3
3

everage output current (load current):

U
Id d
R
Transformer current:
I2

2-20

1 2 2
2
2 2
I

I
)

I d 0.816 I d
d

d
2
3
3
3

2-28

2.3 Effect of transformer leakage inductance on rectifier circuits

T

a LB ia
L
b B ib
c LB ic

ik

ua

ub

VT3

ud L

R
ud

VT1
VT2

uc

id ic
O

ia

ib

ic

ia

Id
t

In practical, the transformer leakage inductance has to be taken into account.

Commutation between thyristors, thus can not happen instantly,but with a
commutation process.

Commutation process analysis

Circulating current ik during commutation
ub-ua = 2LBdia/dt
ik: 0

Id

ia = Id-ik : Id
ib = ik : 0

0
Id

Output voltage during commutation

ud ua LB

dik
di
u ub
ub LB k a
dt
dt
2

2-30

Quantitative calculation
Reduction of average output voltage due to the commutation process
5

1 6
3 6
dik
U d
(
u

u
)
d
(

t
)

[
u

(
u

L
)]d(t )
b
d
b
b
B
5
5
2 / 3 6
2 6
dt
2-31
5
3 6 dik
3 Id
3

LB d(t )
LBdik X B I d
2 56
dt
2 0
2
Calculation of commutation angle

cos cos( )

Id ,
XB,
For 90 , ,

2X BId
6U 2

2-36

Summary of the effect on rectifier circuits

Circuits

U d

cos cos( )

Singlephase
Full wave

XB

Id

Id X B
2U 2

Singlephase
bridge
2X B

Id

Threephase
half wave

3X B
Id
2

2I d X B

2X BId

2U 2

6U 2

Threephase
bridge
3X B
Id

2X B I d
6U 2

m-pulse recfifier

mX B
Id
2
Id X

2U 2 sin

Conclusions
Commutation process actually provides additional working states of the
circuit.
di/dt of the thyristor current is reduced.
The average output voltage is reduced.
Positive du/dt
Notching in the AC side voltag

2.4 Capacitor- filtered uncontrolled (uncontrollable) rectifier

2.4.1 Capacitor- filtered single- phase uncontrolled rectifier
Single-phase bridge, RC load:
id
VD1
i2
u1

VD3
iC
ud +

u2
VD2

VD4
a)

i,ud
i

iR
C

ud

b)

Single-phase bridge, RLC load

u
id + L VD1
i2
u1

i2,u2,ud u2
VD3

u2
VD2

iC iR
+
ud
C

ud

i2
R

VD4
a)

b)

2.4.2 Capacitor- filtered three- phase uncontrolled rectifier

Three-phase bridge, RC load
ud uab ud uac
ia

VD1VD3VD5 id
T

ia

a
b
c

VD4VD6VD2
a)

iC iR
+
ud C

R
id

O
b)

Three- phase bridge, RC load Waveform when RC1.732

ia

ia

t O

id

id

t O
a)
aRC=

t
b)

bRC<

Three- phase bridge, RLC load

ia
VD1VD3VD5
T

ia

id
a
b
c

O
iC iR
ud+ C

ia

t
b)

VD4VD6VD2
a)

c)

2.5 Harmonics and power factor of rectifier circuits

2.5.1 Basic concepts of harmonics and reactive power
For pure sinusoidal waveform

For periodic non-sinusoidal waveform

where

Harmonics-related specifications
Take current harmonics as examples
Content of nth harmonics

HRI n

In
100%
I1

2-57

In is the effective (RMS) value of nth harmonics.

I1 is the effective (RMS) value of fundamental component.
Total harmonic distortion
THDi

Ih
100%
I1

2-58

Ih is the total effective (RMS) value of all the harmonic components.

Definition of power and power factor for sinusoidal circuits

Active power

1
P
2

uid (t ) UI cos

2-59

Reactive power
Q=U I sin

2-61

Apparent power
S=UI

2-60

S 2 P2 Q2

2-63

Power factor

=cos

P
S

2-62
2-64

Definition of power and power factor For non- sinusoidal circuit

P=U I1 cos1

Active power:

2-65

P UI 1 cos 1 I 1

cos 1 cos 1 2-66

S
UI
I

Power factor:
Distortion factor (fundamental- component factor):
=I1 / I

Displacement factor (power factor of fundamental component):

=cos

Definition of reactive power is still in dispute

Review of the reactive power concept

The reactive power Q does not lead to net transmission of energy between
the source and load. When Q 0, the rms current and apparent power
are greater than the minimum amount necessary to transmit the average
power P.
Inductor: current lags voltage by 90, hence displacement factor is zero.
The alternate storing and releasing of energy in an inductor leads to
current flow and nonzero apparent power, but P = 0. Just as resistors
consume real (average) power P, inductors can be viewed as consumers
of reactive power Q.
Capacitor: current leads voltage by 90, hence displacement factor is zero.
Capacitors supply reactive power Q. They are often placed in the
utility power distribution system near inductive loads. If Q supplied by
capacitor is equal to Q consumed by inductor, then the net current
(flowing from the source into the capacitor- inductive- load
combination) is in phase with the voltage, leading to unity power factor
and minimum rms current magnitude.

2.5.2 AC side harmonics and power factor of controlled rectifiers with

inductive load
Single- phase bridge fully-controlled rectifier
u2

ud

T
u1

i2

VT1

VT3

ud

u2
b
VT2
a)

Id t

id
R iVT1,4

Id

iVT2,3
VT4

Id

i2

Id
t

Id

uVT1,4

t
b)

AC side current harmonics of single- phase bridge fully-controlled rectifier

with inductive load

4
1
1
I d (sin t sin 3 t sin 5t )

3
5
4
1
I d sin nt 2 I n sin nt
n1,3,5, n
n 1, 3, 5,

i2

Where
In

2 2I d
n

Conclusions
Only odd order harmonics exist
In1/n
In / I1 = 1/n

n=1,3,5,

2-73

2-72

A typical gate triggering control circuit

R15
VD11~VD14
220V

C7 + C6

36V
VD7

+15V
RP2
VS

R9

R3

V1
R1

TS

VD1 VD2

uts

C1

R2

R6

R7
C2
V2

V3

R5

R10

VD6

VD9
C5

VD5

up
RP1
uco -15V

R16

V8

V6

XY

Disable
-15V

+15V

R18

V7

V4
C3
VD10

VD8

TP

R13

R17
R8

VD15

R14

V5

VD4

I1c
R4

C3

R12

R11

Three- phase bridge fully-controlled rectifier

ia
T
n

VT1 VT3 VT5 d 1

id
a
b

load

VT4 VT6 VT 2 d 2

ud

ud 1

O
ud 2
ud

= 30
ua

ub

uc

t1

t
I
uab

II
uac

III
ubc

IV
uba

V
uca

VI
ucb

uab

uac

id
O
ia

AC side current harmonics of three- phase bridge fully- controlled

rectifier with inductive load
2 3
1
1
1
1
I d [sin t sin 5t sin 7t sin 11t sin 13t ] 2-79

5
7
11
13
2 3
2 3
1

I d sin t
I d (1) k sin nt 2 I1 sin t (1) k 2 I n sin nt

n 6 k 1
n
n 6 k 1

ia

k 1, 2 , 3

k 1, 2, 3

where

6
Id

I 6I ,
n n d
I1

2-80
n 6k 1,k 1,2,3,

2.5.3 AC side harmonics and power factor of capacitor- filtered

uncontrolled rectifiers
Situation is a little complicated than rectifiers with inductive load.
Some conclusions that are easy to remember:
Only odd order harmonics exist in single- phase circuit, and only 6k1
(k is positive integer) order harmonics exist in three- phase circuit.
Magnitude of harmonics decreases as harmonic order increases.
Harmonics increases and power factor decreases as capacitor increases.
Harmonics decreases and power factor increases as inductor increases.

2.5.4 Harmonic analysis of output voltage and current

2 cos k

ud0 U d0 bn cos nt U d0 1 2
cos nt
n mk
nmk n 1

2-85
u

m
sin

m
2 cos k
bn 2
U d0
n 1

U d0 2U 2

2-86
2-87

2 U2

t
mO m
2
m
Output voltage of m- pulse
rectifier when = 0

Ripple factor in the output voltage

Output voltage ripple factor

UR
U d0

2-88

where UR is the total RMS value of all the harmonic components in the
output voltage

UR

2
2
2
U

U
n
d0

2-89

n mk

and U is the total RMS value of the output voltage

Harmonics in the output current

id I d d n cos(nt n )

2-92

n mk

where
U d0 E
R
bn
bn
dn

zn
R 2 ( nL) 2
nL
n arctan
R
Id

2-93
2-94
2-95

Conclusions
for = 0
Only mk (k is positive integer) order harmonics exist in the output voltage
and current of m- pulse rectifiers
Magnitude of harmonics decreases as harmonic order increases when m is
constant.
The order number of the lowest harmonics increases as m increases. The
corresponding magnitude of the lowest harmonics decreases
accordingly.
For 0
Quantitative harmonic analysis of output voltage and current is very
complicated for 0.
As an example,for 3- phase bridge fully- controlled rectifie

2.6 High power controlled rectifier

2.6.1 Double- star controlled rectifier
Circuit
Waveforms When = 0
u d1

ua

ub

uc

T
c

ia

O
u d2
iP

n2

LP
n1

VT5

VT3

VT1

VT4

VT6

'

VT2

c' ud
id

1
I
6 d
uc'

ua'

uc'

ub'

ia'
O

L
'

1
I
2 d

1
2 Id

1
I
6 d

Effect of interphase reactor(inductor, transformer)

ud1,ud2 u '
b

a)
ua

ub'
u d2 u d
VT 6

uc

ub'

1
u
2 P
n2-

VT 1

uc' ub ua'

O t1

n LP

iP

ua

+- +
n1
L
u d1
R

up
b)

60

O
360

up ud2 ud1
2-97
1
1
1
ud ud2 up ud1 U p (ud1 ud2 ) 2-98
2
2
2

Quantitative analysis when = 0

3 6U 2 1
2
1
[1 cos 3t cos 6t cos 9t ]
2-99
2
4
35
40
3 6U 2 1
2
1
ud2
[1 cos 3(t 60) cos 6(t 60) cos 9(t 60) ]
2
4
35
40
3 6U 2 1
2
1

[1 cos 3t cos 6t cos 9t ]

2-100
2
4
35
40
ud1

up

3 6U 2 1
1
[ cos 3t cos 9t ]
2
2
20

2-101

ud

3 6U 2
2
[1 cos 6t ]
2
35

2-102

Waveforms when > 0

Ud=1.17 U2 cos

ud 30

O
ud

O
ud

ua uc'

60

90

ub

ua'

uc

ub'

t
uc'

ub

ua'

uc

ub'

t
uc'

ub

ua'

uc

ub'

2.6.2 Connection of multiple rectifiers

Connection
of multiple
rectifiers

To increase the
output capacity

Larger output voltage:

series connection
Larger output current:
parallel connection

To improve the AC side current waveform

and DC side voltage waveform

Phase-shift connection of multiple rectifiers

Parallel connection

LP
1

2
VT

c1
b1
a1

c2
b2
a2

12- pulse rectifier realized by

paralleled 3- phase bridge rectifiers

Series connection
ia1
I

0
iA

id

i1

a1

ua1b1

b1

c1

a)

b)

ud
1

B
c2

a2

'
iab2

iab2
1
I
3 d

3
3 Id

ua2

b2

Id

2
I
3 d

2 3
3 Id

iab 2
3

III
30

c)
*

0
ia2

Id

iA

(1+

II

2 3
3 ) Id

b2

d)
0

3
3 Id

12- pulse rectifier realized by

series 3- phase bridge rectifiers

(1+

3
3

)Id

Sequential control of multiple series-connected rectifiers

Id
VT11
u
i

VT13
ud

VT12

VT14
L

VT21
u

VT23

VT22

+
b)

ud
i

VT24
load

VT31

Id
2 Id

VT33

VT32

VT34

a)

Circuit and waveforms of series- connected

three single-phase bridge rectifiers

c)

2.7 Inverter mode operationof rectifiers

Review of DC generator- motor system

Id

Id

Id
EG

EG R EM

EG R EM

a)

b)

Id =

EG - EM
R

Id =

EM - EG
R

M
R E M
c)

should be avoided

Inverter mode operation of rectifiers

Rectifier and inverter mode operation of single- phase full- wave
converter
1

VT1
0
u10

iVT

u20 VT2
2
ud

u10

u20

id

ud
engry

iVT

ud

u20

u10

R
M EM
+

u10

Ud>EM

id

VT2

+
engry
M EM
u10

L
iVT

id

ud

iVT

VT1

id = i VT1 + iVT2
iVT

iVT

O
a)

Id =

U d - EG
R

iVT

Id

id

id = i VT1 + iVT2

iVT

t
Ud<EM

iVT

iVT

b)

Id =

EM - U d
R

Id

Necessary conditions for the inverter mode operation of controlled

rectifiers
There must be DC EMF in the load and the direction of the DC EMF must
be enabling current flow in
thyristors. (In other word EM must be negative if taking the ordinary
output voltage direction as positive.)
> 90 so that the output voltage Ud is also negative.

Inverter mode operation of 3- phase bridge rectifier

u2

ua

ub

uc

ua

ub

uc

ua

ub

uc

ua

ub

ud uab uac ubc

=
=
=
3
4
6
uba uca ucb uab uac ubc uba uca ucb uab uac ubc uba uca ucb uab uac ubc

t1 t 2 t3
t

=
3

=
4

=
6

Inversion angle (extinction angle)

+ =180
Inversion failure and minimum inversion angle
Possible reasons of inversion failures
Malfunction of triggering circuit
Failure in thyristors
Sudden dropout of AC source voltage
Insufficient margin for commutation of thyristors
Minimum inversion angle (extinction angle)
min= + + 2-109

LB
a
b
c

VT1

LB
LB
VT2
L
B
LB
VT3

iVT

iVT

L
id

iVT

ud

M EM
+

o
ua

ud

ub

uc

ua

ub

id

iVT

iVT

iVT
2

iVT

iVT

2.8 Thyristor- DC motor system

2.8.1 Rectifier mode of operation
Waveforms and equations

ua

ub

Ud EM R I d U (2-112)
where

ud
Ud
E

idR

R R M R B 3XB
2
(for 3- phase half-wave)

uc

id

ic

ia

ib

ic

(Waveforms of 3- phase half- wave

rectifier with DC motor load

Speed- torque (mechanic) characteristic when load current is

continuous
EM C e n

2-113

For 3- phase half-wave

E M 1.17U2 cos

n
3XB Id
(RB+RM+ 2 ) C
e
a1

E M 1.17U2 cos R I d U

2-114
1.17 U2 cos
R I d U
n

Ce
2-115Ce
For 3-phase bridge

2.34 U2 cos
Ce

a2
a1<a2<a3
O
For 3- phase half-wave

R I d
Ce

2-116

a3

Id

Speed- torque (mechanic) characteristic when load current is

discontinuous
EMF at no load (taking 3- phase half-wave as example)

For 60
Eo=

2U 2

For >60
Eo=

E
E0
( 2U2)
E0'
(0.585U2)

2U 2 cos( 3)

Idmin
O

discontinuouts

continuous mode

mode

For 3- phase half-wave

Id

2.8.2 Inverter mode of operation

Equations

rectifier
mode

2
3
4

E M 1.17U2 cos R I d U

Or in another form

EM = - ( U d 0 cos + I d R I) 2-122

n
Ud 0cos I d R 2-123
Ce

==
2
4
3
2

Id

increasing

2-114

cos
1.17 U2
R I d U
n

Ce
2-115Ce

increasing

are just the same as in the

rectifier mode of operation
except that Ud, EM and n
become negative. E.g., in
3- phase half- wave

inverter
1
mode
Speed-torque characteristic of
a DC motor fed by a thyristor
rectifier circuit

2.8.3 Reversible DC motor drive system(4-quadrant operation)

L

a
b
c

a
b
c Back-to-back

M EM

converter 1

converter 2
+n

converter 2 inverting Id

EM

AC

Energ
+
M y
-

converter 1

connection of two 3phase bridge circuits

Ud

Id converter 1 rectifying

AC

+ source

source +

-converter 2
converter 1

Energ
y
U d

EM
converter 1

converter 2 rectifying Id

M
+

AC

Energ
y

reverse motoring

converter 2

forward motoring

forward braking(regenerating)

-T

+
M E
M
-

Id converter 1 inverting

+T

AC

- source

source -

Energ
y

+
+
Ud converter 2
Ud
converter 1
-n

M EM
+

reverse braking(regenerating)

converter 2

converter 2

converter 1

'2

'3

'4

'='= 2

4
==
2

Id

4
3

' 3
' 2

2
1='1;'1=1
2='2;'2=2

increasing

increasing

'4

'1

increasing

increasing

'1

2.9 Gate triggering control circuit for thyristor rectifiers

A typical gate triggering control circuit

R15

VD11~VD14
220V

C7 + C6

36V
VD7

+15V
RP2
VS

R9

R3

V1
R1

TS

VD1 VD2
C1

R2

R6

R7
C2
V2 R5

Q
uts

V3

VD6

V4
C3
VD10

V8

V6
VD5

up
RP1
uco -15V

R16

V7

R17
R8

18

VD9
C5

XY

Disable
-15V

+15V

R13
R10

VD8

TP

R14

V5

VD4

I1c
R4

C3

R12

R11

VD15