ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How do cracks that lead to failure form?
How is fracture resistance quantified? How do the fracture
resistances of the different material classes compare?
How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure behavior of materials?
NealBoenzi/NewYorkTimesPictures/ReduxPictures
Ship-cyclic loading
from waves.
Chapter-opening photograph, Chapter 10,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Computer chip-cyclic
thermal loading.
Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e.
(Courtesy of National Semiconductor Corporation.)
Hip implant-cyclic
loading from walking.
Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
Callister 7e.
Chapter 10 - 1
Fracture mechanisms
Ductile fracture
Accompanied by significant plastic deformation
Brittle fracture
Little or no plastic deformation
Catastrophic
Chapter 10 - 2
Fracture
behavior:
Very
Ductile
Moderately
Ductile
Brittle
Large
Moderate
Small
%AR or %EL
Ductile fracture is
usually more desirable
than brittle fracture!
Ductile:
Warning before
fracture
Brittle:
No
warning
Chapter 10 - 3
Brittle failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations
Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,
Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig.
4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1987. Used with permission.
Chapter 10 - 4
Resulting
fracture
surfaces
void
nucleation
shearing
void growth
and coalescence at surface
50
50mm
mm
(steel)
particles
serve as void
nucleation
sites.
fracture
100 mm
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,
Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source:
P. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6,
1971, pp. 347-56.)
Chapter 10 - 5
cup-and-cone fracture
brittle fracture
Chapter 10 - 6
Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated
Fig. 10.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [From R. W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials, 3rd edition. Copyright 1989 by John Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. Photograph courtesy of Roger Slutter, Lehigh University.]
Chapter 10 - 7
Intergranular
(between grains)
4 mm
304 S. Steel
(metal)
(through grains)
316 S. Steel
(metal)
Reprinted w/permission
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650.
from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM
9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials
Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R.
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge
D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
National Lab.)
Polypropylene
(polymer)
Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials",
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p.
303, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996.
160 mm
Al Oxide
(ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission
from "Failure Analysis of
Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Copyright 1990, The
American Ceramic
Society, Westerville, OH.
(Micrograph by R.M.
Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
3 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
Chapter 10 - 8
typical ceramic
0.1
materials
materials
Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996.
Chapter 10 - 9
where
t = radius of curvature
o = applied stress
m = stress at crack tip
Fig. 10.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 10 - 10
Chapter 10 - 11
max
r,
fillet
radius
max
0
2.5
2.0
increasing w/h
1.5
1.0
0.5
1.0
sharper fillet radius
r/h
Chapter 10 - 12
Crack Propagation
Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than cracks
having blunt tips
A plastic material deforms at a crack tip, which
blunts the crack.
deformed
region
brittle
ductile
K Ic (MPa m 0.5 )
70
60
50
40
30
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Polymers
C-C(|| fibers) 1
Steels
Ti alloys
Al alloys
Mg alloys
20
Al/Al oxide(sf) 2
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4
C/C( fibers) 1
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3
Si nitr/SiC(w) 5
Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4
Glass/SiC(w) 6
10
7
6
5
4
Diamond
Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride
0.7
0.6
0.5
PET
PP
PVC
Composites/
fibers
PC
<100>
Si crystal
<111>
Glass -soda
Concrete
PS
Glass 6
Polyester
Chapter 10 - 15
amax
fracture
no
fracture
fracture
amax
no
fracture
Chapter 10 - 16
Design B
--use same material
--largest flaw is 4 mm
--failure stress = ?
Use...
Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs.
constant
--Result:
112 MPa 9 mm
4 mm
Answer:
Chapter 10 - 17
Impact Testing
Impact loading:
(Charpy)
final height
initial height
Chapter 10 - 18
Influence of Temperature on
Impact Energy
Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...
Impact Energy
More Ductile
High strength materials ( y > E/150)
Temperature
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
Chapter 10 - 19
Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
Pre-WWII: The Titanic
Fatigue
Fatigue = failure under applied cyclic stress.
Adapted from Fig. 10.18(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
max
time
S = stress amplitude
S = stress amplitude
case for
steel (typ.)
Sfat
safe
10 3
10 5
10 7
10 9
N = Cycles to failure
unsafe
safe
10 3
10 5
10 7
10 9
N = Cycles to failure
case for
Al (typ.)
Chapter 10 - 22
Chapter 10 - 23
1. Impose compressive
surface stresses
(to suppress surface
cracks from growing)
S = stress amplitude
Adapted from
Fig. 10.25, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
N = Cycles to failure
--Method 2: carburizing
shot
put
surface
into
compression
2. Remove stress
concentrators.
c
In
ing
s
ea
bad
bad
C-rich gas
better
better
Chapter 10 - 24
Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress () vs.
time
e
Adapted from
Fig. 10.29, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 10 - 25
tertiary
primary
secondary
elastic
Secondary Creep
Strain rate is constant at a given T,
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
activation energy for creep
(material parameter)
strain rate
material const.
Stress (MPa)
Strain rate
increases
with increasing
T,
applied stress
200
100
40
20
10
10 -2
10 -1
Steady state creep rate
427C
538C
649C
Adapted from
Fig. 9.38, Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
[Reprinted with permission
from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection:
Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3, 9th
ed., D. Benjamin (Senior Ed.),
ASM International, 1980, p.
131.]
1
es (%/1000hr)
Chapter 10 - 27
Creep Failure
Failure: along grain boundaries.
g.b. cavities
applied
stress
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source:
Pergamon Press, Inc.)
Chapter 10 - 28
Stress (MPa)
1000
100
Time to rupture, tr
function of
applied stress
time to failure (rupture)
temperature
data for
S-590 Iron
12
16
20
24
28
Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 10 - 29
SUMMARY
Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
Failure type depends on T and :
-For simple fracture (noncyclic and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- For fatigue (cyclic :
- cycles to fail decreases as increases.
Chapter 10 - 30
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:
Core Problems:
Self-help Problems:
Chapter 10 - 31