Anda di halaman 1dari 31

Chapter 10: Failure

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
How do cracks that lead to failure form?
How is fracture resistance quantified? How do the fracture
resistances of the different material classes compare?
How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure behavior of materials?

NealBoenzi/NewYorkTimesPictures/ReduxPictures

Ship-cyclic loading
from waves.
Chapter-opening photograph, Chapter 10,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Computer chip-cyclic
thermal loading.
Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e.
(Courtesy of National Semiconductor Corporation.)

Hip implant-cyclic
loading from walking.
Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
Callister 7e.
Chapter 10 - 1

Fracture mechanisms
Ductile fracture
Accompanied by significant plastic deformation

Brittle fracture
Little or no plastic deformation
Catastrophic

Chapter 10 - 2

Ductile vs Brittle Failure


Classification:

Fracture
behavior:

Very
Ductile

Moderately
Ductile

Brittle

Large

Moderate

Small

Adapted from Fig. 10.1,


Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

%AR or %EL
Ductile fracture is
usually more desirable
than brittle fracture!

Ductile:
Warning before
fracture

Brittle:
No
warning
Chapter 10 - 3

Example: Pipe Failures


Ductile failure:
-- one piece
-- large deformation

Brittle failure:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations
Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,
Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig.
4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1987. Used with permission.

Chapter 10 - 4

Moderately Ductile Failure


Failure Stages:
necking

Resulting
fracture
surfaces

void
nucleation

shearing
void growth
and coalescence at surface

50
50mm
mm

(steel)
particles
serve as void
nucleation
sites.

fracture

100 mm
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,
Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source:
P. Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6,
1971, pp. 347-56.)

Fracture surface of tire cord wire loaded in


tension. Courtesy of F. Roehrig, CC
Technologies, Dublin, OH. Used with
permission.

Chapter 10 - 5

Moderately Ductile vs. Brittle Failure

cup-and-cone fracture

brittle fracture

Fig. 10.3, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 10 - 6

Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated

Fig. 10.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [From R. W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials, 3rd edition. Copyright 1989 by John Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. Photograph courtesy of Roger Slutter, Lehigh University.]

Chapter 10 - 7

Brittle Fracture Surfaces


Transgranular

Intergranular
(between grains)

4 mm

304 S. Steel
(metal)

(through grains)

316 S. Steel
(metal)

Reprinted w/permission
from "Metals Handbook", Reprinted w/ permission
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650.
from "Metals Handbook",
Copyright 1985, ASM
9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
International, Materials
Copyright 1985, ASM
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
International, Materials
J.R. Keiser and A.R.
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
Olsen, Oak Ridge
D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
National Lab.)

Polypropylene
(polymer)
Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials",
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p.
303, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996.

160 mm

Al Oxide
(ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission
from "Failure Analysis of
Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Copyright 1990, The
American Ceramic
Society, Westerville, OH.
(Micrograph by R.M.
Gruver and H. Kirchner.)

3 mm

1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977, Vol.
3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)

Chapter 10 - 8

Ideal vs Real Materials


Stress-strain behavior (Room T):
E/10

perfect matl-no flaws

TS engineering << TSperfect

carefully produced glass fiber


E/100

typical ceramic
0.1

materials

materials

typical strengthened metal


typical polymer

DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed...


-- the longer the wire, the
smaller the load for failure.
Reasons:
-- flaws cause premature failure.
-- larger samples contain longer flaws!

Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996.

Chapter 10 - 9

Flaws are Stress Concentrators!


Griffith Crack

where
t = radius of curvature
o = applied stress
m = stress at crack tip
Fig. 10.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 10 - 10

Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip

Adapted from Fig. 10.8(b),


Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 10 - 11

Engineering Fracture Design


Avoid sharp corners!
0
Stress Conc. Factor, K t
w

max

r,
fillet
radius

max
0

2.5

Adapted from Fig.


8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng. (NY),
Vol. 14, pp. 82-87 1943.)

2.0

increasing w/h

1.5
1.0

0.5
1.0
sharper fillet radius

r/h

Chapter 10 - 12

Crack Propagation
Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than cracks
having blunt tips
A plastic material deforms at a crack tip, which
blunts the crack.
deformed
region
brittle

ductile

Energy balance on the crack


Elastic strain energy energy stored in material as it is elastically deformed
this energy is released when the crack propagates
creation of new surfaces requires energy
Chapter 10 - 13

Criterion for Crack Propagation


Crack propagates if crack-tip stress (m)
exceeds a critical stress (c)
i.e., m > c
where
E = modulus of elasticity
s = specific surface energy
a = one half length of internal crack

For ductile materials => replace s with s + p


where p is plastic deformation energy
Chapter 10 - 14

Fracture Toughness Ranges


Metals/
Alloys
100

K Ic (MPa m 0.5 )

70
60
50
40
30

Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond

Polymers

C-C(|| fibers) 1

Steels
Ti alloys
Al alloys
Mg alloys

Based on data in Table B.5,


Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

20

Al/Al oxide(sf) 2
Y2 O 3 /ZrO 2 (p) 4
C/C( fibers) 1
Al oxid/SiC(w) 3
Si nitr/SiC(w) 5
Al oxid/ZrO 2 (p) 4
Glass/SiC(w) 6

10
7
6
5
4

Diamond
Si carbide
Al oxide
Si nitride

0.7
0.6
0.5

PET
PP
PVC

Composites/
fibers

PC

<100>

Si crystal
<111>
Glass -soda
Concrete

PS

Composite reinforcement geometry is: f


= fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers;
p = particles. Addition data as noted
(vol. fraction of reinforcement):
1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int.,
Materials Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc.,
Waltham, MA.
3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture
Mechanics of Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press
(1986). pp. 61-73.
4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of
Ceramic Matrix Composites for Application in
Technology for Advanced Engines Program",
ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2, ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci.
Proc., Vol. 7 (1986) pp. 978-82.

Glass 6

Polyester
Chapter 10 - 15

Design Against Crack Growth


Crack growth condition:
K Kc =
Largest, most highly stressed cracks grow first!
--Scenario 1: Max. flaw
size dictates design stress.

--Scenario 2: Design stress


dictates max. flaw size.

amax

fracture
no
fracture

fracture

amax

no
fracture

Chapter 10 - 16

Design Example: Aircraft Wing


Material has KIc = 26 MPa-m0.5
Two designs to consider...
Design A
--largest flaw is 9 mm
--failure stress = 112 MPa

Design B
--use same material
--largest flaw is 4 mm
--failure stress = ?

Use...
Key point: Y and KIc are the same for both designs.
constant
--Result:

112 MPa 9 mm

4 mm

Answer:
Chapter 10 - 17

Impact Testing
Impact loading:

(Charpy)

-- severe testing case


-- makes material more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Fig. 10.12(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(Adapted from H.W. Hayden, W.G.
Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and
Properties of Materials, Vol. III,
Mechanical Behavior, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc. (1965) p. 13.)

final height

initial height

Chapter 10 - 18

Influence of Temperature on
Impact Energy
Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...

Impact Energy

FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)


BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914C)
polymers
Brittle

More Ductile
High strength materials ( y > E/150)

Temperature

Adapted from Fig. 10.15,


Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature

Chapter 10 - 19

Design Strategy:
Stay Above The DBTT!
Pre-WWII: The Titanic

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and


Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The Discovery of the Titanic.)

WWII: Liberty ships

Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and


Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Earl R. Parker, "Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad.
Sci., Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)

Problem: Steels were used having DBTTs just below


room temperature.
Chapter 10 - 20

Fatigue
Fatigue = failure under applied cyclic stress.
Adapted from Fig. 10.18(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

max

Stress varies with time.

-- key parameters are S, m, and min


cycling frequency

time

Key points: Fatigue...


--can cause part failure, even though max < y.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
Chapter 10 - 21

--no fatigue if S < Sfat

For some materials,


there is no fatigue
limit!

S = stress amplitude

Fatigue limit, Sfat:

S = stress amplitude

Types of Fatigue Behavior


unsafe

case for
steel (typ.)

Sfat
safe
10 3

Adapted from Fig.


10.19(a), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

10 5
10 7
10 9
N = Cycles to failure

unsafe
safe
10 3

10 5
10 7
10 9
N = Cycles to failure

case for
Al (typ.)

Adapted from Fig.


10.19(b), Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 10 - 22

Rate of Fatigue Crack Growth


Crack grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6

increase in crack length per loading cycle


crack origin

Failed rotating shaft

-- crack grew even though


Kmax < Kc
-- crack grows faster as
increases
crack gets longer
loading freq. increases.

Fig. 10.22, Callister &


Rethwisch 9e.
(From D. J. Wulpi,
Understanding How
Components Fail, 1985.
Reproduced by permission
of ASM International,
Materials Park, OH.)

Chapter 10 - 23

1. Impose compressive
surface stresses
(to suppress surface
cracks from growing)

S = stress amplitude

Improving Fatigue Life

--Method 1: shot peening

Adapted from
Fig. 10.25, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

near zero or compressive m


moderate tensile m
Larger tensile m

N = Cycles to failure

--Method 2: carburizing

shot

put
surface
into
compression

2. Remove stress
concentrators.

c
In

ing
s
ea

bad
bad

C-rich gas

better
better

Fig. 10.26, Callister &


Rethwisch 9e.

Chapter 10 - 24

Creep
Sample deformation at a constant stress () vs.
time
e

Primary Creep: slope (creep rate)


decreases with time.
Secondary Creep: steady-state
i.e., constant slope e /t)
Tertiary Creep: slope (creep rate)
increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate.

Adapted from
Fig. 10.29, Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 10 - 25

Creep: Temperature Dependence


Occurs at elevated temperature, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

tertiary
primary

secondary

elastic

Figs. 10.30, Callister &


Rethwisch 9e.
Chapter 10 - 26

Secondary Creep
Strain rate is constant at a given T,
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
stress exponent (material parameter)
activation energy for creep
(material parameter)

strain rate
material const.
Stress (MPa)

Strain rate
increases
with increasing
T,

applied stress
200
100
40
20
10

10 -2
10 -1
Steady state creep rate

427C
538C
649C

Adapted from
Fig. 9.38, Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
[Reprinted with permission
from Metals Handbook:
Properties and Selection:
Stainless Steels, Tool
Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3, 9th
ed., D. Benjamin (Senior Ed.),
ASM International, 1980, p.
131.]

1
es (%/1000hr)

Chapter 10 - 27

Creep Failure
Failure: along grain boundaries.
g.b. cavities
applied
stress

From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 4.32, p. 87, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source:
Pergamon Press, Inc.)

Chapter 10 - 28

Prediction of Creep Rupture Lifetime


Estimate rupture time
S-590 Iron, T = 800C, = 140 MPa

Stress (MPa)

1000

100

Time to rupture, tr

function of
applied stress
time to failure (rupture)

temperature

data for
S-590 Iron
12

16

20

24

28

(1073 K )(20 log t r ) 24x103

103 T(20 + log tr (K-h)


Adapted from Fig. 10.33, Callister & Rethwisch
9e. (From F.R. Larson and J. Miller, Trans. ASME, 74, 765
(1952). Reprinted by permission of ASME)

Ans: tr = 233 hr
Chapter 10 - 29

SUMMARY
Engineering materials not as strong as predicted by theory
Flaws act as stress concentrators that cause failure at
stresses lower than theoretical values.
Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
Failure type depends on T and :
-For simple fracture (noncyclic and T < 0.4Tm), failure stress
decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- For fatigue (cyclic :
- cycles to fail decreases as increases.

- For creep (T > 0.4Tm):


- time to rupture decreases as or T increases.

Chapter 10 - 30

ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:
Core Problems:
Self-help Problems:

Chapter 10 - 31

Anda mungkin juga menyukai