2.

THE OPEN SYSTEMS

INTERCONNECTION (OSI) MODEL
AND NETWORK PROTOCOLS.
2.1 Know Network Communications
2.2 Understand a Local Wired Network
2.3 Understand basic concept of internet connection and information sent
across internet
2.4 Understand Network Services
2.5 Apply email client server
2.6 Apply Addressing Schemes for TCP/IP suite

2.1.1 DESCRIBE THE PURPOSE OF THE

OSI MODEL AND EACH OF ITS LAYERS.

2.1.1 Describe the purpose of the

OSI Model and of each of its layers.
OSI model is used:
to

describe

what

tasks

protocol

suite

performs as we explore how data moves across

a network.

A protocol suite is most easily defined:

as a set of rules used to determine how
computers communicate with each other.
3

Open System
Interconnection (OSI)
Open System Interconnection (OSI) merupakan sebuah

model untuk komunikasi komputer yang terdiri dari 7

layer atau lapisan (OSI 7 layer).

Sebelum

adanya

OSI

yang

merupakan

standard

antarabangsa ini, setiap syarikat komputer seperti IBM

dan DEC mempunyai seni bina masing-masing sehingga
produk yang dihasilkan mereka tidak boleh saling interoperasi.
4

Contoh soalan peperiksaan:

Explain the purpose of various layers?
Terangkan secara ringkas, fungsi/tujuan bagi setiap
lapisan?

1.The Physical Layer

coordinates the functions required to
transmit a bit stream over a physical
medium.

2.The Data Link Layer

is responsible for delivering data units
from one station to the next without
errors.
6

3. The Network Layer

is responsible for the source-todestination delivery of a packet across
multiple network links.

4.The Transport Layer

is responsible for
destination delivery
message.

the source-toof the entire

Contoh soalan peperiksaan:

Explain the purpose of various layers?
Terangkan secara ringkas, fungsi/tujuan bagi setiap
lapisan?

5. The Session Layer

establishes, maintains, and synchronizes

interactions between communicating devices.

the

6.The Presentation Layer

ensures interoperability between communicating

devices through transformation of data into a
mutually agreed-upon format.

7.The Application Layer

enables the users to access the network.

8

International Standards
Organization's(ISO)
The

International

Standards

Organization's(ISO) OSI model serves

as a standard template for describing
a network protocol stack.

Is learning OSI layer is

important?
1. The OSI Reference Model provides the
basis for understanding how technologies
like

Ethernet

has

some

important

similarities;

10

Is learning OSI layer is

important?
2. It explains how a PC can communicate using any of

several

different

sets

of

protocols,

even

simultaneously;

3. It is an important part of understanding the differences

between interconnection devices such as repeaters,

hubs, bridges, switches and routers; and it also
explains how many WAN technologies interoperate.

11

The purpose of OSI model:

U can take these as an answer for questions like what is the
purpose of OSI model?
1.

To promote the goal of communications between different types of

systems by encouraging the development of internetworking devices.

2.

To make sure that all functions needed for communications are

addressed and that none are left out.

3.

To avoid duplication of functions thereby increasing efficiency.

4.

To design independence for each layer from other layers. This facilitates
the interoperability of products from different manufacturers and
insures that the end-user can substitute one vendors product for
another.

5.

To produce a learning tool that can be used to understand how

communications in modern computer systems works.

12

Methods of using the OSI

model
There are THREE(3) different ways to use the OSI
model:
1.

Bottom up troubleshooting by going from the physical layer

(layer 1) up to the application layer (layer 7)

2.

Top down - troubleshooting by going from the application

layer (layer 7) down to the physical layer (layer 1)

3.

Divide and Conquer in this method, you start with

whatever layer you feel is most likely the cause of the
problem, then move in whatever direction you feel is the more
likely cause of the issue (either up or down the OSI model)

13

2.1.2 Define specific functions

belonging to each OSI Model layer.

Application layer
Layer

Description/keyw
ords

Applicati
on

Provides an
interface for a
service to
operate
Communicatio
n partner
identification

Protocols

Devices/
components

HTTP
Telnet
FTP
TFTP
SNMP

Data
encapsulatio
n

User
information
and data

15

Presentation layer
Layer

Description/
keywords

Data
format (file
formats)
Encryption
,
Presentatio
translation
n
, and
compressi
on
Data
format and
exchange

Protocols

Devices/
Data
component encapsulat
s
ion

JPEG,BMP,
TIFF,
PICT, MPEG,
WMV, AVI,
ASCII,
EBCDIC
MIDI, WAV

Data

16

Session layer
Layer

Session

Description/keywor
ds

Keeps data
streams
separate
(session
identification)
Set up,
maintain, and
tear down
communicatio
n sessions

Protocols

Data
Devices/
encapsulatio
components
n

SQL
NFS
ASP
RPC
X
window

Data

17

Transport layer
Layer

Description/keywor
ds

Reliable
(connection
oriented) and
unreliable
(connectionles
s)
communicatio
ns
Transpo
End-to-end
rt
flow control
Port and
socket
numbers
Segmentation,
sequencing,
and

Protocols

Data
Devices/
encapsulati
components
on

TCP
(connectionoriented)
UDP
(connectionle
ss)
Segments

18

Network layer
Layer

Description/key
words

Logical
addresses
Path
Networ
determination
k
(identification
and selection)
Routing packets

Protocols
IP
IPX
AppleTal
k
DECNET

Devices/
Data
component encapsulat
s
ion
Routers
Layer 3
switches
Packets

19

Data Link layer

Layer

Data
link

Description/keywords

Protocols

Devices/
components

Convert bits into

LAN protocols Network
bytes and bytes into
: 802.2(LLC),
Interface
frames
802.3
Card (NIC)
(Ethernet),
transceiver
MAC address,
hardware address
802.5(Token
s
Logical network
Ring),
Switch
topology
802.11(Wirele Bridge
ss)
Media access
Flow control
WAN
o Acknowledgem
protocols:
ents
HDLC, PPP,
o Buffering
Frame Relay,
o Windowing
ISDN, ATM
Parity and CRC

20

Data
encapsulati
on

Frames

Physical layer
Layer

Description/keywords

Physica
l

Move bits across

media
Cables, connectors,
pin positions
Electrical signals
(voltage, bit
synchronization)
Physical topology
(network layout)

Protocols

EIA/TIA
232(serial
signaling)
V.35
(modem
signaling)
Cat5
RJ45

Devices/
components

Data
encapsulatio
n

Transmission
media (cable
and wires)
Media
connectors
Transceivers
(including
transceivers
built into NICs)
Modems
Repeaters
Hubs
Multiplexers
CSUs/DSUs
Wireless
Access Points
21

Bits

Questions
1. Name all SEVEN(7) OSI
starting with the lowest.

layers,

2. Which OSI layer handles addressing

on the local physical network?
3. What layers are referred to as the
hardware layers?
22

Questions
4. Which OSI layer is responsible for
adding a header that includes
routing information?
Network Layer
5. Which OSI layer is considered the
media access control layer?
Data Link Layer
6. TCP functions at what layer of the
OSI model?
Transport Layer
23

Questions
7. Which layer is responsible for converting
data packets from the Data Link layer into
electrical signals ?
8. At which layer is routing implemented,
enabling connections and path selection
between two end systems. ?
9. Which layer defines how data is formatted,
presented, encoded, and converted for use
on the network ?
24

Questions
10.Which layer is responsible for creating,
managing
and
terminating
sessions
between applications ?
11.Which layer provides logical addressing
that
routers
will
use
for
path
determination ?
12.Which layer specifies voltage, wire speed,
and pinout cables and moves bits between
devices ?
25

2.1.3 DESCRIBE HOW TWO NETWORK

NODES COMMUNICATE THROUGH THE
OSI MODEL.

Data flow through the OSI model

27

Communication between systems

28

29

OSI REFERENCE
MODEL

REAL WORLD
EQUIVALENT TASKS

Application

Program to program
transfer of
information

Presentation

Text formatting and

display code
conversion

TCP/IP PROTOCOL

Application

Session

Establishing,
maintaining, and
coordinating
communication

Transport

Accurate delivery,
service quality

Transport

Network

Transport routes,
message handling
and transfer

Internet

Data Link
Physical

Coding, addressing,
and transmitting
information
The hardware
connections (the NIC

Network
30
Interface

2.1.4 DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE AND

PURPOSE OF DATA PACKETS AND
FRAMES.

The structure and purpose of data

packets

32

2.1.4 Explain the structure and

purpose of data packets and frames.
It turns out that everything you do on the
Internet involves packets.

For example, every Web page that you receive

comes as a series of packets, and every e-mail
you send leaves as a series of packets. Networks
that ship data around in small packets are called
packet switched networks.
33

Data Packet
A packet is a basic unit of communication over a
digital network.

A packet is also called a datagram, a segment, a

block, a cell or a frame, depending on the
protocol.

When data has to be transmitted, it is broken

down into similar structures of data, which are
34

Data Packets and Frames

On the Internet, the network breaks an email message into parts of a certain size in
bytes.

These are the packets.

35

Data Packets and Frames

Each packet carries the information
that will help it get to its destination
--

the

intended

sender's

IP address,

receiver's

IP

the

address,

something that tells the network how

many packets this e-mail message
has been broken into and the number
36

Data Packets and Frames

The packets carry the data in the protocols that the

Internet uses: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol (TCP/IP).

Each packet contains part of the body of your message.

A typical packet contains perhaps 1,000 or 1,500 bytes.

37

Packets and protocols

Packets vary in structure depending on the

protocols implementing them.

VoIP uses the IP protocol, and hence IP packets.

On an Ethernet network, for example, data is

transmitted in Ethernet frames.

38

Structure of packets
The structure of a packet depends on the type of
packet it is and on the protocol.

Normally, a packet has a header and a payload.

The header keeps overhead information about the

packet, the service and other transmission-related
things.
39

Structure of packets
For example, an IP packet includes:
The source IP address
The destination IP address
The sequence number of the packets
The type of service
Flags
Etc
The payload is the data it carries.
40

Protocol

4
1

Protocol
There are rules governing how data is

transferred over networks, how they are

compressed, how they are presented on
the screen and so on.

These set of rules are called protocols.

42

Protocol
There are many protocols, each one governing
the way a certain technology works.

For example, the IP protocol defines a set of

rules governing the way computers use IP
packets to send data over the Internet or any
other IP-based network.

43

Protocol
It also defines addressing in IP. Likewise, we have other protocols like:
1.

TCP: Transmission Control Protocol, used for the reliable transmission of data
over a network.

2.

HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol, used for transmitting and displaying

information in the form of web pages on browsers.

3.

FTP: File Transfer Protocol, used for file transfer (uploading and downloading)
over the Internet

4.

SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, used for email

5.

Ethernet: Used for data transmission over a LAN.

6.

Wi-Fi: One of the wireless protocols.

44

2.1.5
RELATE
TWO
TYPES
OF
ADDRESSING COVERED BY THE OSI
MODEL.

2.1.5 Explain TWO (2) types of

addressing covered by the OSI Model.
Each node has TWO(2) types of
addresses:
1. Network address: follows hierarchical
addressing scheme

Can be assigned through OS software

Network
layer
addresses,
logical
addresses, or virtual addresses

2. Physical address
46

2.2.1 Explain the MAC address of a Host using ipconfig /all command.
2.2.2 Relate a standard IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Frame based on a given
source and destination devices.
2.2.3 Give logical address of a computer.
2.2.4 Give IP address of a computer.

2.2 UNDERSTAND A LOCAL

WIRED NETWORK

2.2.1 Explain the MAC address of a

Host using ipconfig /all command.
Physical addressing
MAC address (Media Access Control)
Ethernet communication:
each interface has a MAC address
each device may look at the data, but only the interface that
matches the destination MAC will respond

 Ipconfig:
Is used to find out your current TCP/IP settings.
With IPCONFIG you can find out your IP
Address, find your Default Gateway and find
your Subnet Mask.
This is a very handy network tool for finding
your local IP address.

ipconfig command

 ipconfig /all:
To display all your IP information for all
adapters.
With ipconfig /all you can also find out your
DNS Server and MAC Address.
This will show your full TCP/IP configuration for
all adapters on your Windows machine.

ipconfig/all command

2.2.2 Relate a standard IEEE 802.3 Ethernet

Frame based on a given source and
destination devices.

Preamble beginning of the timing

SFD (Start Frame Delimiter) marks the end of the timing, but
beginning of the frame
Destination MAC
Source MAC
Length/Type
Length tells which protocol receives the data
Type number of bytes of data

Encapsulation packet of information

FCS (Frame Check Sequence) checks for damaged frames

2.2.3 Give logical address of a

computer.
MAC vs. IP
IP Address (Logical Address):
assigned based on where the host is located
assigned by the administrator

Parts of an IP address:
Network same for all hosts connected to the LAN
Host unique to each host on the network

2.2.4 Give IP address of a computer.

A logical address is:
the address that is given or assigned to a device
which registers its presence on the internet highway.
At a particular time this address will be unique for the
device but it may change at some times in future.
IPv4 is an example of Logical Address.

2.3 UNDERSTAND BASIC CONCEPT OF

INTERNET CONNECTION AND
INFORMATION SENT ACROSS INTERNET

2.3.1 LIST INTERNET

SERVICE PROVIDER (ISPS)

Internet Service Providers (ISP) in

Malaysia
1.

Celcom Broadband
Broadband services by Celcom, based on HSDPA

2.

iZZi
Wireless broadband

3.

Jaring
Pioneer Internet Service Provider

4.

Maxis Broadband
Broadband services by Maxis, based on HSDPA

5.

P1
Wi-Fi and WiMax Broadband, by Green Packet

Internet Service Providers (ISP) in

Malaysia
6. PenangFON
Fibre Speed Internet Broadband
7. REDtone
Telecommunication solutions provider, VoIP,
Internet, Leased Lines, WiMax
8. Streamyx
Broadband access (ADSL), by TM
9. TIME Broadband
Zone, Fusion, BizNet, HomeNet, NetLink

59

2.3.2 DESCRIBE THE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN ISP AND INTERNET

4.1.3 The ISPs Relationship With the Internet

ISPs use a POP (Post Office Protocol) to provide
service to end users.
There are many POPs in an ISPs network.

Post Office Protocol (POP)

In computing, the Post Office
Protocol (POP) is an applicationlayer Internet standard protocol used
by local e-mail clients to retrieve email from a remote server over a
TCP/IP connection.
POP and IMAP (Internet Message
Access Protocol) are the two most
prevalent(common) Internet standard

Post Office Protocol (POP)

Virtually all modern e-mail clients and
servers support both.
The POP protocol has been developed
through several versions, with version 3
(POP3) being the current standard.

Like IMAP, POP3 is supported by most

webmail services such as Hotmail,
Gmail and Yahoo! Mail.
63

2.3.3 EXPLAIN THE

IMPORTANCE OF THE
INTERNET PROTOCOLS
(IP)

2.3.3 Importance of the Internet

Protocol (IP)
Must run Internet Protocol
communicate on Internet.

(IP)

software

to

IP protocol is one of the TCP/IP (Transmission Control

Protocol / Internet Protocol) Protocols .
As Ethernet uses Frames, IP uses Packets.
Each IP packet must contain a valid source and
destination IP address.

2.3.3 Importance of the Internet

Protocol (IP)
The IP Packet (datagram)
Has
a
header
which contains the
source
and
destination
IP
addresses.
IP addresses must
be unique on the
Internet.
Computers
in
homes,
small
businesses
and
other organizations
obtain
their
IP
configuration from

2.3.4 EXPLAIN THE PACKETS TRAVEL

THROUGH THE INTERNET BY USING
PING AND TRACEROUTE

The Routing Process, Ping, And

Traceroute
3. In this example, the host wants to send data to a device
at IP address 20.1.1.2.
4. The host is attached to only one network, 10.0.0.0 /8.
5. The host will then send the data to its default gateway,
which in this case happens to be a Cisco router.
6. When this datagram is sent by the host, the destination
IP address will be that of the host at 20.1.1.2.
7. However, the destination MAC address will be that of
the router interface closest to the sending host.

8. The router receives the datagram, unpacks it,

and sends it to the routing process.
9. The router will then match the IP destination
address against its routing table.

70

Using PING And TRACEROUTE To

Test Network Connectivity
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) offers two
network connectivity testing functions.
The ping command sends five ICMP packets to the
intended destination.
Ping will then return one of several symbols to indicate
whether IP connectivity exists, and if not, a clue to
what the issue is.
The ping is an ICMP Echo Request; the ping reply is an
ICMP Echo Reply.
71

Consider our earlier example. If the host on

network 10.0.0.0 /8 has trouble reaching the host
on 20.0.0.0 /8, ping helps diagnose the problem.

72

1. Ping process
The two general replies from a ping are

!!!!! and ...

The

exclamation

points

indicate

IP

connectivity exists between the hosts; five

periods indicate that the ping packets were
unable to find the destination host.
73

2. Traceroute
The second ICMP tool you should be
familiar with is traceroute.

Where ping simply tells you whether IP

connectivity is or is not present, traceroute
displays the path the packet takes to reach
its destination.
74

Traceroute
Traceroute works by sending out ICMP
packets with a Time To Live (TTL) of one to
find the first step to the final destination.

It will then send a packet with a TTL of

two, and the TTL value increases until the
final destination is found.
75

Traceroute
When that happens, the entire path will be
displayed on your console.
If the final destination cannot be found, asterisks
will start to appear on your screen.
This is a sort of error message it means the TTL
has been exceeded.
To abort a ping or traceroute in progress, press
<CTRL-SHIFT-6> twice in rapid succession.
76

Traceroute
A

great

1-2-3

method

to

troubleshoot

routing problems:
1. Ping the destination.
2. If the pings dont come back, run show ip route
to make sure your local device has a route to the
destination.
3. If a route exists, use traceroute to determine
which downstream router cant route the packet.
77

Question
1. Which definition describes the term
Internet?
A. a group of PCs connected together on
a LAN
B. a group of PCs connected together by
an ISP
C. a network of networks that connects
countries around the world
D. a worldwide collection of networks
controlled by a single organization
78

Question
2. What type of connection point is a
point of presence (POP)?
A.
B.
C.
D.

between
between
between
between

a client and a host

two local networks
a computer and a switch
an ISP and a home-based LAN

79

Question
5. Which THREE(3) elements are
required to successfully connect to
the Internet? (Choose three.)
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.

an IP address
file sharing enabled
a network connection
server services enabled
access to an Internet service provider
an address obtained directly from the RIR
80

Answer
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

C
D
A, B, and E
C
A, C, and E

81

2.4.1 Define Domain Name Service (DNS).

2.4.2 Relate ping command, a browser and nslookup to identify the relationship
between domain names and IP addresses.
2.4.3 Explain DNS in a LAN.
2.4.4 Describe e-mail protocols in clients and servers: SMTP, POP3, and IMAP4

2.4 UNDERSTAND
NETWORK SERVICES

2.4.1 DEFINE DOMAIN

NAME SERVICE (DNS).

2.4.1 Define Domain Name System

Definition:
A system for converting host names and
domain names into IP addresses on the
Internet or on local networks that use the
TCP/IP protocol.
Sistem untuk menukar nama hos dan
nama domain ke dalam alamat IP di
Internet atau pada rangkaian tempatan
yang menggunakan protokol TCP / IP.
84

Domain Name System

For

example,

when

Web

site

address is given to the DNS either by

typing a URL in a browser or behind
the scenes from one application to
another, DNS servers return the IP
address of the server associated with
that name.

85

Domain Name System

In
this
hypothetical
example,
www.company.com would be converted into
the IP address 204.0.8.51.
Without DNS, you would have to type the four
numbers and dots into your browser to retrieve
the Web site, which, of course, you can do.
Try finding the IP of a favourite Web site and type
in the dotted number instead of the domain
name!
86

2.4.2 RELATE PING COMMAND, A

BROWSER AND NSLOOKUP TO
IDENTIFY THE RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN DOMAIN NAMES AND IP
ADDRESSES.

Relate ping command to identify the

relationship between domain names and IP
addresses.

The PING command can be used to

check if a domain name is resolving
to an IP address, and if that IP
address can be reached from your
machine.

Relate a browser and nslookup to identify

the relationship between domain names and
IP addresses.

In Windows, you can do plenty of

things using command line.
Converting a domain name to its IP
address
using
the
nslookup
command is one of them.
You can also find IP address of any
websites host machine.

Heres is the step by step

procedure:
1. Click on Start button and type cmd
in the search box. Press Enter.

2. Windows command prompt will

open.
Now
type
nslookup
ftp.yahoo.com and press enter.

3. It will show you Yahoo FTP IP address. This

is IP address of the server where
yahoo.com is hosted. Similarly you can
find host machines for any other website.

4. If you want to look up IP address of

a website then type nslookup in the
command prompt and press enter.

5. Now enter the domain name of any

website and press enter. It will show
you the IP address of that particular
site. For example you typed
google.com and pressed enter. It
returned
Googles
IP
address:
209.85.231.104.
It
means
if
you
type
http://209.85.231.104 in a browsers
address bar, google.com will open.

 Similarly you can convert any other domain

name into its IP address. You can also check the
result by typing the IP address in the browser
address bar.
Now, for the more tech savvy folks among you,
the nslookup command is used for testing out
DNS servers.
Remember, for websites that dont have a
dedicated IP address, you could get different
results each time you use this command.

2.4.3 EXPLAIN DNS IN A

LAN.

2.4.4 DESCRIBE E-MAIL

PROTOCOLS IN CLIENTS AND
SERVERS: SMTP, POP3, AND
IMAP4

Overview
SMTP, POP3 and IMAP are TCP/IP protocols
used for mail delivery.
If you plan to set up an email server such
as Mail Server, you must know what they
are used for.
Each protocol is just a specific set of
communication rules between computers.
99

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer

Protocol)
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol.
SMTP is used when email is delivered
from an email client, such as Outlook
Express, to an email server or when
email is delivered from one email
server to another.
SMTP uses port 25.

100

POP3 (Post Office Protocol)

POP3 stands for Post Office Protocol.

POP3 allows an email client to download an email from an email server.

The POP3 protocol is simple and does not offer many features except for
download.

Its design assumes that the email client downloads all available email from
the server, deletes them from the server and then disconnects.

POP3 normally uses port 110.

101

IMAP (Internet Message Access

Protocol)
IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol.
IMAP shares many similar features with POP3.
It, too, is a protocol that an email client can use to download email
from an email server.
However, IMAP includes many more features than POP3.
The IMAP protocol is designed to let users keep their email on the
server.
IMAP requires more disk space on the server and more CPU resources
than POP3, as all emails are stored on the server. IMAP normally uses
port 143.
102

2.6.1 COMPARE THE ADDRESSING

SCHEME OF TCP/IP: TCP/IP CLASSES,
BINARY
AND
DOTTED
DECIMAL
NOTATION, SUBNET MASK.

2.6.1 Compare the addressing scheme of TCP/IP:

TCP/IP classes, binary and dotted decimal notation,
subnet mask.

TCP/IP uses 32 bits, or four numbers

between 0 and 255, to address a
computer.

104

IP Addresses
Each computer must have an IP address before it can
connect to the Internet.

Each IP packet must have an address before it can be

sent to another computer.

This
This

is
might

an

IP
be

address:
the

same

192.68.20.50
IP

www.w3schools.com
105

address:

An IP Address Contains 4
Numbers
Each computer must have a unique IP address.
This is your IP address: 203.82.87.102
TCP/IP uses four numbers to address a computer.
The numbers are always between 0 and 255.
IP addresses are normally written as four
numbers separated by a period, like this:
192.168.1.50.
106

32 Bits = 4 Bytes
In computer terms, TCP/IP uses 32 bits
addressing. One byte is 8 bits. TCP/IP uses
4 bytes.
One byte can contain 256 different values:
00000000, 00000001, 00000010, 00000011,
00000100, 00000101, 00000110, 00000111,
00001000 .......and all the way up to 11111111.

Now you know why a TCP/IP address is

four numbers between 0 and 255.
107

Network Classes
Internet addresses are allocated by the InterNIC (
http://www.internic.net ), the organization that
administers the Internet.
These IP addresses are divided into classes.
The most common of these are classes A, B, and
C.
Classes D and E exist, but are not generally used
by end users.
108

Network Classes
Each of the address classes has a
different default subnet mask.
You can identify the class of an IP
address by looking at its first octet.

109

Following are the ranges of Class A, B, and C

Internet addresses, each with an example
address:

Class A
networks use a default subnet mask of
255.0.0.0 and have 0-127 as their first
octet.
The address 10.52.36.11 is a class A
address.
Its first octet is 10, which is between 1
and 126, inclusive.

110

Following are the ranges of Class A, B, and C

Internet addresses, each with an example
address:

Class B
networks use a default subnet mask of
255.255.0.0 and have 128-191 as their
first octet.
The address 172.16.52.63 is a class B
address.
Its first octet is 172, which is between
128 and 191, inclusive.

111

Following are the ranges of Class A, B, and C

Internet addresses, each with an example
address:

Class C
networks use a default subnet mask of
255.255.255.0 and have 192-223 as
their first octet.
The address 192.168.123.132 is a class
C address.
Its first octet is 192, which is between
192 and 223, inclusive.

112

 In some scenarios, the default subnet

mask values do not fit the needs of
the organization, because of the
physical topology of the network, or
because the numbers of networks (or
hosts) do not fit within the default
subnet mask restrictions.

113

The following table shows which bytes of the IP

address are assigned to you and the range of
numbers within each byte that are available for you
to assign to your hosts.
Class

Byte 1
range

Byte 2
range

Byte 3
range

Byte 4
range

0 - 127

1 - 254

1 - 254

1 254

128 - 191

Preassigned
by internet

1 - 254

1 254

192 - 223

Preassigned
by internet

Preassigned
by internet

1 - 254

114

Dotted Decimal Notation

IP addresses are normally expressed in
dotted-decimal format, with four numbers
separated
by
periods,
such
as
192.168.123.132.
To understand how subnet masks are used
to distinguish between hosts, networks,
and sub networks, examine an IP address
in binary notation.
115

Binary and Dotted Decimal Notation

For example, the dotted-decimal IP address
192.168.123.132 is (in binary notation) the 32
bit

number

110000000101000111101110000100.

This number may be hard to make sense of, so

divide it into four parts of eight binary digits.

116

Binary and Dotted Decimal Notation

These EIGHT(8) bit sections are known as octets.
The example IP address, then, becomes
11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100.
This number only makes a little more sense, so for
most uses, convert the binary address into dotteddecimal format (192.168.123.132).
The decimal numbers separated by periods are the
octets converted from binary to decimal notation.
117

IP Addressing Scheme
An IP address has TWO(2) parts.

The first part of an IP address is

used as a network address, the
second part as a host address.
118

IP Addressing Scheme
If you take the example
192.168.123.132 and divide it into
these two parts you get the
following:

119

Increments of an IP Address:

0.0.0.0
0.0.0.1
increment 252 hosts
0.0.0.254
0.0.0.255
0.0.1.0
0.0.1.1
increment 252 hosts
0.0.1.254
0.0.1.255
0.0.2.0
0.0.2.1
increment 4+ billion hosts
255.255.255.255

120

Subnet Mask
The second item, which is required for
TCP/IP to work, is the subnet mask.
The subnet mask is used by the
TCP/IP protocol to determine whether
a host is on the local subnet or on a
remote network.
121

Subnet Mask
In TCP/IP, the parts of the IP address
that are used as the network and
host addresses are not fixed, so the
network and host addresses above
cannot be determined unless you
have more information.
This information is supplied in
another 32-bit number called a
subnet mask.
122

Subnet Mask
In this example, the subnet mask is
255.255.255.0.
It is not obvious what this number
means unless you know that 255 in
binary notation equals 11111111; so,
the subnet mask is:

123

Subnet Mask
Lining up the IP address and the
subnet mask together, the network
and host portions of the address can
be separated:

124

Subnet Mask
The first 24 bits (the number of ones
in the subnet mask) are identified as
the network address, with the last 8
bits (the number of remaining zeros
in the subnet mask) identified as the
host address. This gives you the
following:

125

Subnet Mask
So now you know, for this example using a
255.255.255.0 subnet mask, that the
network ID is 192.168.123.0, and the host
address is 0.0.0.132.
When a packet arrives on the 192.168.123.0
subnet (from the local subnet or a remote
network), and it has a destination address of
192.168.123.132, your computer will receive
it from the network and process it.
126

Subnet Mask
Almost all decimal subnet masks
convert to binary numbers that are
all ones on the left and all zeros on
the right.
Some other common subnet masks
are:

127

Uses of Subnet Masks

1. Identifies a Network.
2. Isolates the Network ID and Host ID.
3. Determines
the
number
of
host/terminals that could be used on
the same network.
4. Reduces Network traffic.

128

ANY QUESTION/COMMENT?

129

Questions
1. Internet Protocol (IP) addresses are how many
bits long?
2. The address 68.56.189.17 belongs to which IP
class?
3. What is the range of the first octet on a Class A
TCP/IP address?
4. What is the subnet mask for a Class C TCP/IP
address?
130

Questions
5. What
is
the
binary
10101011 in base 10?

number

6. What is the base 10 number 255 in

binary?
7. What is the network address for the
TCP/IP address 199.5.5.5? What is
the computer address for the TCP/IP
address 199.5.5.5?
131

2.6.2 EXPLAIN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE IP

ADDRESS

2.6.2 What is Public IP address?

Public IP Addresses (also known as Static IP
Addresses) are IP addresses that are visible to the
public.
Because these IP addresses are public, they allow
other people to know about and access your
computer, like a Web server.
In some cases, you do not want people to access
your computer or you want to restrict certain
individuals from accessing your computer or server.
133

What is Private IP address?

These addresses can be used on a
private network, but theyre not
routable through the public Internet.
This not only creates a measure of
much-needed security, but it also
conveniently
saves
valuable IP
address space.
134

Current Private IP addresses as

follows:

Class A
10.0.0.0 through 10.255.255.255

Class B
172.16.0.0 through 172.31.255.255

Class C
192.168.0.0 through 192.168.255.255
135

2.6.3 EXPLAIN UNICAST, BROADCAST,

AND MULTICAST ADDRESSES

Unicast
A unicast IP address is an IP address
uniquely identifying a host in a network.
The datagram with a unicast IP address
is received and processed by only a
single host.
For
example,
the
IP
address
192.9.205.21 is a unicast IP address.
137

Broadcast address
The datagram with a broadcast IP
address is received and processed by
all the hosts in the local network.
For example, the IP addresses
255.255.255.255,192.9.205.255,180.
10.255.255,10.255.255.255
are
broadcast IP addresses.
138

Multicast
A multicast address is an IP address
identifying a particular group of hosts
in network.
This group of hosts is called a
multicast group.
For
example,
the
IP
address
225.2.100.1 is a multicast IP address.
139

2.6.4 RELATE HOW IP ADDRESSES

ARE OBTAINED:
STATIC ADDRESSES
DYNAMIC ADDRESSES

2.6.4 What are fixed and

dynamic IP addresses?
In a traditional TCP/IP network architecture each
computer is assigned a permanent IP address.
This requires manual configuration of each and
every computer.
Once the address is assigned it will not change,
unless someone does it manually.
It is called a fixed IP address.
141

What are fixed and dynamic IP

addresses?
When hundreds or thousands
involved this can be a lot of work.

of

computers

are

Sometimes networks are reconfigured and large

numbers of machines must be given new IP addresses.
Each time a computer is added care must be taken to
ensure that it does not use an IP address already
assigned to another computer on the same network.
To improve this situation, Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP) was developed.
142

What are fixed and dynamic IP

addresses?
A DHCP server is a software program that
assigns IP addresses to computers with no
manual intervention.
This has tremendous advantages in virtually
any network environment.
Administrators of large networks save many
hundreds of hours per year over manual
configuration of computers.
143

What are fixed and dynamic IP

addresses?
Computers may be added or removed with
no impact on the network configuration and
no concerns about address conflict.
Users on even the smallest networks benefit
as they do not need to know how to
configure a TCP/IP control panel.
A computer on such a network is said to
have a dynamic IP address.
144

Dynamic IP Addresses
The biggest advantages of Dynamic IP
Addressing are
i.

less security risk.

ii.

the

computer

is

assigned

new

IP

address each time the customer logs on.

iii. they are cost effective.
iv. there is automatic network configuration.
145

Dynamic IP Addresses
In contrast, Dynamic IP addressing should
not be used for VOIP, VPN, playing online
games or game hosting because Dynamic
IP addressing is less reliable(trusted) then
Static IP addressing and could cause the
service to disconnect while you are on a
VOIP, VPN or gaming.
146

2.6.7
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
server

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

(DHCP) is a network protocol that enables
a server to automatically assign an IP
address to a computer from a defined
range

of

numbers

(i.e.,

configured for a given network.

147

scope)

Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol (DHCP) server
A DHCP Server assigns IP addresses
to client computers.
This is very often used in enterprise
networks to reduce configuration
efforts.
All IP addresses of all computers are
stored in a database that resides on
a server machine.
148

DHCP Server
Normally the DHCP server provides
the client with at least this basic
information:
i. IP Address
ii. Subnet Mask
iii. Default Gateway

149

DHCP Server
Other information can be provided as
well, such as Domain Name Service
(DNS) server addresses and Windows
Internet Name Service (WINS) server
addresses.
The system administrator configures
the DHCP server with the options
that are parsed out to the client.
150