Change in shape of object when stress is applied.

Stress is force/unit area and Strain is elongation or compression / unit length.

If a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes
because its length and diameter of conductor changes. Also there is chance in
the value of the resistivity of the conductor when subjected to strain, this
property is called piezo-resistive effect. Resistive strain gauges are also called
piezo resistive gauges

Un bonded strain gauge

Strain gauge used in bridge arrangement

The strain gauge is normally used in a bridge arrangement in which the gauge
forms one of the bridge. Only one of the gauge is an active element, producing an
output proportional to the strain gauge. The other gauge is not strained, but simply
balances the bridge(compensation).
If the two resistors R1 and R2 have negligible temperature coefficients, the
bridge retains its balance under conditions of no strain, at any temperature within its
operating range.

Types of wired strain gauges

Grid type

Rossette gauge

Torque type gauge

Helical gauge

The measurement of the sensitivity of a material to strain is called the gauge factor
or strain factor. It is the ratio of change in resistance to the change in the length.

GF ( K )

R
l

R
l

Poissons ratio is defined as the ratio of strain in the lateral direction to strain
in the axial direction, that is

d
l

d
l

The gauge is given asK 1 2

Problem: A resistance strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 is cemented to a steel
member, which is subjected to a strain of 1 X 10-6. If the original resistance
value of the gauge is 130 ohms, calculate the change in resistance.

 To have a high sensitivity, a high value of gauge factor is desirable. A high

gauge factor means relatively higher change in resistance, which can be easily
measured with a good degree of accuracy.
The gauge factor of SSG is 50 times higher than wire strain gauges.

Semi conductor strain gauge

Resistance Thermometer
The resistance of a conductor changes when its temperature is
changed. This property is utilized for measurement of temperature.
R.T is an instrument used to measure electrical resistance in terms of
temperature.
The main part of a resistance thermometer is its sensing element.
The characteristics of the sensing element determines the sensitivity
and operating temperature range of the instrument.
The characteristics of sensing element are stability, linearity and
speed of response.
Platinum, nickel and copper are the metals most commonly used
to measure temperature. The most commonly used material for R.T
is Platinum and its temperature range is -260 to -1100 deg centi.

Industrial platinum resistance thermometer

Bridge circuit

 Temperature sensing element along with the balancing bridge, form essential
components of a temperature measuring systems.
The sensing element Rs is made of material having a high temperature
coefficient and R1, R2 and R5 are made of resistances that are practically constant
under normal temperature changes.
The bridge balanced condition is

R1 R3 RS R4

R2
R5

Advantages
The measurement is very accurate.
The resistive element response time is of the order of 2 to 10s.
Wide temperature range(-200 deg to +650 deg cent)
Stability of performance over long periods of time.
Limitations
High cost
Need for bridge circuit and power source.
Possibility of self heating

Resistance Temperature Detectors

RTD commonly use platinum, nickel or any resistance wire whose resistance
varies with temperature and which has a high accuracy.
The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors in the
temperature range near 0 deg cen can be calculated using equation

Rt Rref (1 t )
Almost all metals have a positive temperature coefficients of resistance,

and some materials like carbon, silicon and germanium have negative
temperature coefficient of resistance.
A high value of is desired in a temperatue sensing element, so that
sufficient change in resisitance occurs for a relatively small change in
temperature.
Platinum is most widely used element because of its high stability.

Advantages of RTDs
Linearity
wide operating range
Higher temperature operation
Better stability at high temperature
Disadvantages of RTDs
Low sensitivity
It can be affected by constant resistance, shock and vibration
Higher cost than other temperature transducers.

 Thermistor are thermally sensitive resistor.

These are non-metallic resistors, made by mixtures of metallic oxides such as
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium.
Thermistor have a Negative Temperature Coefficient(NTC), resistance
decreases as temperature rises.

 High sensitivity to temperature changes makes the Thermistor extremely useful

for precision temperature measurements, control and compensation .

The smallest Thermistor are made in the form of beads. Some are small as 0.15
mm in diameter. The resistance ranges from 300 ohms to 100M ohms.
Disc Thermistor about 10mm in diameter, These are having values 1 ohm to 1M
ohm. These are sintered and coated with silver on two flat surfaces.

 Washer Thermistor are made like disc Thermistor, except that a hole is formed
in the centre in order to make them suitable for mounting on a bolt.
Rod Thermistor are extruded through dies to make long cylindrical units of
1.25, 2.75 and 4.25mm in diameter and 12.5-50mm long. Leads are attached to the
end of the rods. Their resistance usually varies from 1-50 k ohms. The advantages
of rod over other configurations is the ability to produce high resistance units with
moderately high power handling capability.
Advantages of Thermistor
Small size and low cost.
Fast response over narrow temperature range.
Good sensitivity in the NTC region.
Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence of resistance on
absolute temperature.
Limitations of Thermistor
Non- linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics.
Unsuitable for wide temperature range.

Reluctance is opposition to the flow of flux in a magnetic circuit.

L = length of the circuit
A= Cross sectional Area
U= permeability

Permeability is defined as the ability to permit the flow of

magnetic flux.

Differential Output Transducer

Differential Output using Number of turns

Differential Output using Reluctance principle

Capacitive Transducers
In capacitive transducers, the measurand is converted to a change in the
capacitance.
The capacitance is given by C = KA/D
K = The dielectric constant
A = The total area of the capacitor surfaces.
D = Distance between two capacitive surfaces.
From the above equation capacitance increases with change in (i) effective area
of plates, (ii) dielectric constant and (iii) distance between the plates.
Generally capacitive transducers are used to measure pressure.

Rotary Plate capacitive transducers

A variable plate area transducer is made up of a fixed plate called stator and a
movable plate called the rotor.

The capacitance of this unit proportional to the amount of the fixed plate that
is covered, that shaded by moving plate. This type of transducer will give sign
proportional to curvilinear displacement or angular velocity.

Capacitive Pressure transducer

Changes in pressure may be easily detected by the variation of distance between

a fixed plate and another plate free to move as the pressure changes. The resulting
variation follows the basic capacity formula.

C 0.885

K (n 1) A
pf
t