1

Sequential
Sequential Machine
Machine Theory
Theory
Prof. K. J. Hintz
Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering

Lecture 1
http://cpe.gmu.edu/~khintz
Adaptation to this class and
additional comments by Marek
Perkowski

Why
Why Sequential
Sequential Machine
Machine Theory
Theory
(SMT)?
(SMT)?
Sequential Machine Theory SMT
Some Things Cannot be Parallelized
Theory Leads to New Ways of Doing
Things
Understand Fundamental FSM Limits
Minimize FSM Complexity and Size
Find the Essence of a Machine

Why
Why Sequential
Sequential Machine
Machine Theory?
Theory?
Discuss FSM properties that are
unencumbered by Implementation Issues
Technology is Changing Rapidly, the core
of the theory remains forever.
Theory is a Framework within which to
Understand and Integrate Practical
Considerations

Hardware/Software
Hardware/Software
There Is an Equivalence Relation Between
Hardware and Software
Anything that can be done in one can be done
in the otherperhaps faster/slower
System design now done in hardware
description languages without regard for
realization method
Hardware/software/split decision deferred until later
stage in design

Hardware/Software
Hardware/Software
Hardware/Software equivalence extends to
formal languages
Different classes of computational machines are
related to different classes of formal languages
Finite State Machines (FSM) can be
equivalently represented by one class of
languages

Formal
Formal Languages
Languages

Unambiguous
Can Be Finite or Infinite
Can Be Rule-based or Enumerated
Various Classes With Different Properties

Finite
Finite State
State Machines
Machines
Equivalent to One Class of Languages
Prototypical Sequence Controller
Many Processes Have Temporal
Dependencies and Cannot Be Parallelized
FSM Costs
Hardware: More States More Hardware
Time: More States, Slower Operation

Goal
Goal of
of this
this set
set of
of lectures
lectures
Develop understanding of
Hardware/Software/Language Equivalence
Understand Properties of FSM
Develop Ability to Convert FSM
Specification Into Set-theoretic Formulation
Develop Ability to Partition Large Machine
Into Greatest Number of Smallest Machines
This reduction is unique

Machine/Mathematics
Machine/Mathematics Hierarchy
Hierarchy
AI Theory

Intelligent Machines

Computer Theory

Computer Design

Automata Theory

Finite State Machine

Boolean Algebra

Combinational Logic

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Combinational
Combinational Logic
Logic
Feedforward
Output Is Only a Function of Input
No Feedback
No memory
No temporal dependency

Two-Valued Function Minimization Techniques

Well-known Minimization Techniques
Multi-valued Function Minimization Well-known
Heuristics

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Finite
Finite State
State Machine
Machine
Feedback
Behavior Depends Both on Present State
and Present Input
State Minimization Well-known With
Guaranteed Minimum
Realization Minimization
Unsolved problem of Digital Design

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Computer
Computer Design
Design
Defined by Turing Computability
Can compute anything that is computable
Some things are not computable

Assumed Infinite Memory

State Dependent Behavior
Elements:

Control Unit is specified and implemented as FSM

Tape infinite
Head
Head movements

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Intelligent
Intelligent Machines
Machines
Ability to Learn
Possibly Not Computable

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Automata,
Automata, aka
aka FSM
FSM
Concepts of Machines:

Mechanical
Computer programs
Political
Biological
Abstract mathematical

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Abstract
Abstract Mathematical
Mathematical
Discrete
Continuous system can be discretized to any
degree of resolution

Finite State
Input/Output
Some cause, some result

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Set
Set Theoretic
Theoretic Formulation
Formulation of
of Finite
Finite
State
State Machine
Machine

S , I , O, ,
S:

Finite set of possible states

I:

Finite set of possible inputs

O:

Finite set of possible outputs

Rule defining state change

Rule determining outputs

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Types
Types of
of FSMs
FSMs
Moore
Output is a function of state only

Mealy
Output is a function of both the present state
and the present input

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Types
Types of
of FSMs
FSMs
Finite State Acceptors, Language
Recognizers
Start in a single, specified state
End in particular state(s)

Pushdown Automata
Not an FSM
Assumed infinite stack with access only to
topmost element

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Computer
Computer
Turing Machine

Assumed infinite read/write tape

FSM controls read/write/tape motion
Definition of computable function
Universal Turing machine reads FSM behavior
from tape

20

Review
Review of
of Set
Set Theory
Theory
Element: a, a single object with no
special property
Set: A, a collection of elements, i.e.,
a A

Enumerated Set:

A1 2,5,7,4

A 2 a1, a2 , a3 ,

A3 Larry, Curly, Moe

Finite Set: A 4 a : 0 a 10, integer

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Sets
Sets
Infinite set
A5 R real numbers
A 6 I integers

Set of sets
A 7 A3 , A 6

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Subsets
Subsets
All elements of B are elements of A and
there may be one or more elements of A
that is not an element of B
BA
A6 A7

A7

A3

A6

Larry,

integers

Curly,
Moe

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Proper
Proper Subset
Subset
All elements of B are elements of A and
there is at least one element of A that is not
an element of B
BA

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Set
Set Equality
Equality
Set A is equal to set B

AB
iff
AB
and
BA

25

Sets
Sets
Null Set
A set with no elements,

Every set is a subset of itself

Every set contains the null set

26

Operations
Operations on
on Sets
Sets
Intersection

C AB
C a| a A a B

Union
D AB
D a| a A a B

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Operations
Operations on
on Sets
Sets
Set Difference

E AB
E a| a A a B

Cartesian Product, Direct Product

F AB
F x, y | x A y B

28

Special
Special Sets
Sets
Powerset: set of all subsets of A
P A 2 a , b
e. g., let

A 0, 1
then
P A , 0 , 1 , 0, 1

*no braces around the null set since the symbol represents the set

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Special
Special Sets
Sets
Disjoint sets: A and B are disjoint if

AB
Cover:

A set of sets, B B1 , B 2,
covers another set A
if
A Bi
all i

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Properties
Properties of
of Operations
Operations on
on Sets
Sets
Commutative, Abelian
Associative

AB BA
AB BA

A B C A B C
A B C A B C

Distributive

LHD A B C A B A C

RHD A B C A C B C

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Partition
Partition of
of aa Set
Set
Properties
A p | p P A
and,
a) p are disjoint,
b)

A,

c) pi

pi are called pi-blocks or -blocks of PI

32

Relations
Relations Between
Between Sets
Sets
If A and B are sets, then the relation from A
R:A B
to B,
is a subset of the Cartesian product of A and
B, i.e.,
R AB
not necessarily a proper subset

R-related:

a, b R

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Domain
Domain of
of aa Relation
Relation
Dom R : A B a A | a , b R for some b B
Domain of R

a
A

B
b

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Range
Range of
of aa Relation
Relation
Range R:A B b B| a , b R for some a A

Range of R

A
a

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-1
-1
Inverse
Relation,
R
Inverse Relation, R

Given
R :AB
then
R 1 b, a B A | a, b R B A
a
A

R-1

B
b

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Partial
Partial Function,
Function, Mapping
Mapping
A single-valued relation such that
if

a , b R

and

b
a
A

* can be many to one

a , b R
then
b b

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Partial
Partial Function
Function
Also called the Image of a under R
Only one element of B for each element of A
Single-valued
Can be a many-to-one mapping

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Function
Function
A partial function with

Dom R : A B A

A b corresponds to each a, but only one b for

each a
Possibly many-to-one: multiple as could map
to the same b

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Function
Function Example
Example
let A 1, 2, 3, 4
then let

B u, v , w

R 1 u, R 2 v , R 3 v , R 4 w
or,
R 1, u , 2, v , 3, v , 4, w

Unique, one image for each element of A and no

more
Defined for each element of A, so a function,
not partial
Not one-to-one since 2 elements of A map to v

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Surjective,
Surjective, Onto
Onto
Range of the relation is B
At least one a is related to each b

Does not imply

single-valued
one-to-one
A

R
a

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Injective,
Injective, One-to-One
One-to-One
A relation between 2 sets such that pairs
can be removed, one member from each set,
until both sets have been simultaneously
exhausted.
given a, b R
and

a ', b R

then

a a'

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Injective,
Injective, One-to-One
One-to-One
a could map to b
also if it were not at
least a partial function
which implies
single-valued

R
b

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Bijective
Bijective
A function which is both Injective and
Surjective is Bijective.
Also called one-to-one and onto

A bijective function has an inverse, R-1, and

it is unique

44

Function
Function Examples
Examples
Monotonically increasing
B
if injective
Not one-to-one,
but single-valued

A
B

b
a a
A

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Function
Function Examples
Examples
Multivalued, but one-to-one
b
B

b
b
a

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The
The End
End of
of the
the Beginning
Beginning