Atoms, Molecules & Stoichiometry Redox

ATOMS, MOLECULES &
STOICHIOMETRY
AND
REDOX
H2 CHEMISTRY (9729)
Topics for 2016

Atoms, Molecules & Stoichiometry and Redox
Atomic Structure
Chemical Bonding
Chemical Energetics
Gaseous State (ILT)
Chemical Equilibrium
Ionic Equilibrium
Reaction Kinetics
The Periodic Table (ILT)
Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Hydrocarbons Alkanes
CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK
The topics are organised into two levels reinforced by

the Practices of Science:
Core Ideas Matter, Structure and Properties, and
Transformation
Extension Topics Learning of different chemical
systems
Practices of Science:
Understanding the nature of scientific knowledge
Demonstrating science inquiry skills
Relating science and society
ASSESSMENT
Duration
Marks Weighting
(%)
Multiple Choice
1h
30
15
Structured
Questions
2h
75
30
Free Response
Questions
2h
80
35
Practical
2 h 30 min
55
20
Paper Type of Paper
LECTURE RULES
Attitude
Respect the speaker by listening.
Be attentive. The devil is in the details.
Preparedness
Guard your lecture notes.
Complete take-home tasks given by the
lecturer.
5
Punctuality
Alert tutor if the lesson before goes
overtime.
ANNOUNCEMENTS
1) All are to purchase a set of practical goggles

from the bookshop.
2) Pre-lab quizzes
) To be completed before every practical lesson
) Consequences:
Every uncompleted quiz = direct entry pass to
Make-up Practical (Thurs 4 pm @ Chem Lab 4)
3 uncompleted quizzes = 1 CMD entry
ANNOUNCEMENTS
ASKnLearn LMS > Workspace > Course >

Shared Courses > 2016 Y5 H2 Chemistry
ANNOUNCEMENTS
RVHS Chemistry Facebook Page
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Heaviest baby from China
(2012)
Weight
7.04 kg
15.5 pounds
1.11 stones
MASS
International standard
that defines the
fundamental unit of mass
Made from platinum and
platinum-iridium alloy
Kept near Paris
International prototype kilogram
10
Slowly gaining mass
CHEMISTRY UNITS
Consider the chemical equation:
2H2 + O2 2H2O
Mass
2g
1g
1.125g
(1.875g unreacted H2)
Moles
2
1
2
11
Express quantities or amounts of chemical substance

(matter) that contains as much molecules
(elementary units)
MOLE CONCEPT
12
Defined based on Avogadros constant

6.02 x 1023
One of the base units in the International
System of Units
MOLE DAY
13
October 23, 6:02 AM 6:02 PM
CONSIDER THIS
14
From your Data Booklet

Mass of proton/neutron = 1.67 x 10-27 kg
Mass of electron = 9.11 x 10-31 kg (negligible)
Consider carbon-12 (6 p, 6 n and 6 e)
Mass of 1 atom of carbon-12 isotope
= 12 x 1.67 x 10-27 = 2.00 x 10-26 kg
Mass of 1 mole of carbon-12 isotope
= 2.00 x 10-26 x 6.02 x 1023 = 0.012 kg (or 12 g)
ATOMS, MOLECULES &

STOICHIOMETRY AND REDOX
15
Part 1:
Definition of terms
The Mole concept
Empirical formula and molecular
formula
Stoichiometric calculations
FAMILIAR TERMS
Nucleon number (A)
The total number of protons and neutrons in
an atom, also known as the mass number.
A
Z
16
Proton number (Z)

The number of protons in an atom,
also known as the atomic number.
1 DEFINITION OF TERMS
17
Isotopes
Atoms of the same element with the same
number of protons but different number of
neutrons.
13
1
2
18
16
Examples: 12
C , 6C ; 1H , 1H ; 8O , 8O
6
Different physical properties, identical chemical
properties (due to same number of electrons)
Relative abundance in naturally occurring
elements
18
Relative isotopic mass

The mass of one mole of atoms of an isotope
(of a certain element) relative to the mass of
one mole of 12C atoms.
12C is chosen as standard of reference.
Example:
For 35Cl, relative isotopic mass is 34.96885 ( 35);
for 37Cl, relative isotopic mass is 36.96534 ( 37).
Relative atomic mass (Ar)

The average mass of one mole of atoms of
an element relative to the mass of one mole
of 12C atoms.
It is calculated by taking the weighted
average of the relative isotopic masses of the
natural isotopes of an element, usually given
to
1 decimal place.
Alternatively: the average mass of one atom
of an element relative to the mass of one 12C
atom.
19
EXAMPLE 1
Given the following data and that the Ar of chlorine
is 35.5, calculate the percentage abundance of
each of the 35Cl and 37Cl isotopes.
Relative isotopic mass
34.96885
36.96534
20
Isotope
35
Cl
37
Cl
EXAMPLE 1
Let the percentage abundance of 35Cl be x % and
the percentage abundance of 37Cl be (100 x) %.
x = 73.4
21
Percentage abundance of 35Cl = 73.4%

Percentage abundance of 37Cl = 100 73.4
= 26.6%
22
Relative molecular mass (Mr)

The average mass of one mole of molecules
relative to the mass of one mole of 12C atoms.
Used for molecules of some compounds and
elements
23
Relative molecular mass (Mr)

NOT used for ionic compounds as ionic
compounds do not exist as molecules
If Mr is calculated using Ar data obtained from
Periodic Table, Mr is expressed to 1 decimal
place.
If Mr is calculated via other means, Mr is
generally expressed to 3 significant places.
EXAMPLE 2
Calculate the Mr of C6H5Cl.
24
Mr of C6H5Cl = 6 12.0 + 5 1.0 + 35.5

= 112.5 (1 d.p.)
Relative formula mass (Mr)
The average mass of one formula unit of one
mole of compound relative to the mass of one
mole of 12C atoms.
A formula unit is the smallest group of
atoms/ions from which the formula of a
compound can be established.
Sum of the individual relative atomic/ionic mass
of all the atoms/ions in the formula unit.
25
sodium chloride lattice
EXAMPLE 3
Calculate the relative formula mass of
calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2.
Mr of Ca(OH)2 = 40.1 + 2 16.0 + 2 1.0
= 74.1
26
Note:
All relative masses, i.e. Ar and Mr, are ratios
and have no units.
THE MOLE
Mass of
Substance
(g)
Molar mass
of substance
(g mol1)
27
Amount of
substance
(mol)
2 THE MOLE CONCEPT
28
Avogadros constant
The number of 12C atoms in exactly 12 g of 12C
L = 6.02 1023 mol1
29
THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
1023 = 100 000 000 000 000 000

000 000
43
The entire surface of 100 earth sized

planets
covered 1 m deep with peas
= 12 g of
pencil lead
= 1 mole of
carbon
atoms
44
602 earth
sized
planets
covered 1
m deep
with peas
EXAMPLE 4
Calculate the number of atoms in 1 g of 12C.
No. of
particles
Amount
of
6.02 1023
particles
(mol1)
(mol)
45
Number of atoms in 1 g of 12C

= (1 12) (6.02 1023)
= 5.02 1022
2 THE MOLE CONCEPT
46
The Mole
A mole is the amount of substance that contains
Avogadro number (6.02 1023) of particles.
OR
A mole is the amount of substance which
contains the same number of particles as there
are atoms in 12.0 grams of 12C.
Examples:
1 mol of Mg contains:
6.02 1023 Mg atoms.
0.5 mol of NO2 contains:
3.01 1023 NO2 molecules
3.01 1023 N atoms
6.02 1023 O atoms
9.03 1023 atoms (both N and O atoms).
0.5 mol of NaCl contains:
3.01 1023 Na+ ions
3.01 1023 Cl ions
6.02 1023 ions (both Na+ and Cl ions).
47
2 THE MOLE CONCEPT
EXAMPLE 5
In 10 g of NH4NO3, calculate the following:
(i) number of NH4+ ions
Ar (N): 14.0
Mr of NH4NO3 = (14.0 2) + (1.0 4) + (16.0 3)
Ar (H): 1.0
= 80.0
Ar (O): 16.0
Amount of NH NO = = 0.125 mol
4
Number of formula units of NH4NO3

= 23 = 7.53 1022
48
NH4NO3 NH4+
Number of NH4+ ions = 7.53 1022
EXAMPLE 5
(ii) total number of ions (both NH4+ and NO3 ions)
NH4NO3 NH4+ NO3
Number of NO3 ions = 7.53 1022
49
Total number of ions = 7.53 1022 2

= 1.511023
EXAMPLE 5
(iii) total number of atoms
Total number of atoms in 1 formula unit of NH4NO3
=9
50
Total number of atoms in 10 g of NH4NO3

= 7.53 1022 9
= 6.771023
2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

The Mole
Question:
Why is the statement mass of 1 mol of oxygen
ambiguous?
It could refer to oxygen atoms (O) or oxygen
molecules (O2).
51
Think about it: Is this statement ambiguous?

mass of 1 mol of oxygen gas
2 THE MOLE CONCEPT
52
Molar Mass
Mass of 1 mole of the specified substance
(atoms, molecules, formula units, ions)
Units for molar mass: g mol1
Molar mass is numerically equal to Ar or Mr.
Molar mass (M) is NOT the same as relative
molecular mass (Mr) which is defined as the
average mass of one mole of molecules relative
to the mass of one mole of 12C atoms.
EXAMPLE 6
Calculate the molar mass of
(i) aluminium chloride, AlCl3;
(ii) sulfate ions, SO42.
(i) Molar mass of AlCl3 = 27.0 + 3 35.5
= 133.5 g mol1
53
(ii) Molar mass of SO42 = 32.1 + 4 16.0

= 96.1 g mol1
2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

Molar gas volume (Vm)
The volume occupied by 1 mol of the substance
in the gaseous state under given conditions of
temperature and pressure.
Avogadros Law states that :
Equal volumes of gases, measured under the
same conditions of temperature and pressure,
contain the same number of particles.
54
At constant temperature and pressure, V
2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

Molar gas volume (Vm)
Conditions
Molar gas
volume /
dm3 mol1
standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.)

i.e. 273 K (0oC) and 1 bar (105 Pa)
22.7
24
55
room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.)

i.e. 293 K (20oC) and 1 atm (101325 Pa)
EXAMPLE 7
Calculate the volume occupied by 2 mol of H 2(g) at
(i) s.t.p.
(ii) r.t.p.
(i) Volume occupied by 2 mol of H2(g) at s.t.p.
= 2 22.7
= 45.4 dm3
56
(ii) Volume occupied by 2 mol of H2(g) at r.t.p.

= 2 24
= 48.0 dm3
2 THE MOLE CONCEPT
57
Applications in solutions
The concentration of a solute in a solution is the
mass/amount of solute in a given volume of
solution.
Concentration is usually expressed in g dm3
or mol dm3.
EXAMPLE 8
2.00 g of sodium hydroxide is dissolved in water
and made up to 250 cm3 in a volumetric flask.
Calculate the concentration of sodium hydroxide in
the solution in (i) g dm3 (ii) mol dm3.
(i) Concentration of NaOH = 2.00
= 8.00 g dm3
Note:
Square brackets are usually used when concentration
is expressed in mol dm3.
58
(ii) [NaOH] = 8.00 (23.0 + 16.0 + 1.0)

= 0.200 mol dm3
EXAMPLE 9
The concentration of aluminium sulfate, Al2(SO4)3,
in an aqueous solution was determined to be
0.0200 mol dm3.
59
Calculate
(i) the respective concentration of Al3+ and SO42 in
mol dm3,
(ii) the respective amount of Al3+ and SO42 in
25.0 cm3 of the solution.
EXAMPLE 9
(i) Al2(SO4)3(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3SO42(aq)
Al2(SO4)3 2Al3+ 3SO42
[Al3+] = 0.0200 2
= 0.0400 mol dm3
60
[SO42] = 0.0200 3
= 0.0600 mol dm3
EXAMPLE 9
Al3+
in 25.0 cm3 of solution
SO42
= 1.00 10-3 mol

in 25.0 cm3 of solution
= 1.50 10-3 mol
61
(ii)
2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

Dilution
When a solution is diluted, the amount of solute
remains the same, but the volume of solution
increases. Therefore, the concentration of the
solute in the solution decreases.
62
Concentration =
amount of solute
volume of solution
EXAMPLE 10
10.0 cm3 of a 1.00 mol dm3 aqueous sodium
chloride solution is diluted with distilled water to
make up to 250 cm3. What is the concentration of
sodium chloride in the diluted solution in mol dm 3?
NaCl
10-2 mol
63
[NaCl] in diluted solution

= 0.0400 mol dm-3
EXAMPLE 11
Find the volume of water (in cm3) that should be
added to 100 cm3 of a 0.500 mol dm3 hydrochloric
acid to form a 0.200 mol dm3 solution.
HCl in 100 cm3 of 0.500 mol dm-3 solution
mol
Volume of water to be added = 250 100

= 150 cm3
64
Volume of diluted solution = 0.0500 0.200

= 0.250 dm3
= 250 cm3
EXAMPLE 12
65
If 20 cm3 of a 0.1 mol dm3 of aqueous sodium

sulfate solution is mixed with 80 cm 3 of a
0.5 mol dm3 aqueous magnesium chloride
solution, find the concentration, in mol dm 3, of the
sodium sulfate and magnesium chloride in the
resultant mixture.
EXAMPLE 12
Total volume of resultant mixture = 20 + 80
= 100 cm3
[Na2SO4] in resultant mixture
= 0.0200 mol dm-3
66
[MgCl2] in resultant mixture

= 0.400 mol dm-3
2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

Conversion between different quantities
molar mass of substance (in g mol-1)
amount of
substance, n
(in mol)
n=
n=
number of particles
Avogadro constant (in mol-1)
n = conc (in mol dm3) vol (in dm3)

volume of gas (in dm3)
molar gas volume (in dm3 mol-1)

Note: Volume of gas and molar gas volume must be
measured at the same temperature and pressure
67
n=
mass of substance (in g)
3 EMPIRICAL & MOLECULAR

FORMULA
68
Percentage composition by mass

specifies the percentage by mass of each of the
different elements present in the compound
EXAMPLE 13
Calculate the percentage composition by mass of
N, H, S and O in ammonium sulfate, (NH4)2SO4.
Express all answers to 1 decimal place.
Molar mass of (NH4)2SO4
= 2 14.0 + 8 1.0 + 32.1 + 4 16.0
= 132.1 g mol1
69
Percentage composition by mass of N

= 21.2%
EXAMPLE 13
Percentage composition by mass of H
Percentage composition by mass of S
70
Percentage composition by mass of O

FORMULA
71
Empirical formula
The formula of a chemical compound that
shows the simplest whole-number ratio of the
number of atoms of each element present in the
substance.

FORMULA
1 Write down the mass ratio of the elements
(species) involved.
Convert the mass ratio into mole ratio by
2
dividing
each mass by the molar mass of the
respective element (species).
values
72
Determine the smallest whole number

3 the mole ratio obtained.
for

FORMULA
Molecular formula
The formula of a chemical compound that
shows the actual number of atoms of the
different elements in one molecule of the
compound.
It is the simple multiple of the empirical formula.
73
Note: Ionic compounds do not have

molecular formula.
EXAMPLE 14
74
A 2.50 g sample of an unknown compound was

found to consist of 60.0% carbon, 8.0% hydrogen
and 32.0% oxygen. The Mr of the compound is
200.0. Find the empirical formula and hence
deduce its molecular formula.
EXAMPLE 14
Element
Mass ratio
60.0
8.0
32.0
Mole ratio
= 5.00
= 8.00
= 2.00
= 2.50
= 4.00
Empirical formula is C5H8O2.
75
Simplest
ratio
= 1.00
EXAMPLE 14
Let molecular formula be C5nH8nO2n.
n = 200.0 (5 12.0 + 8 1.0 + 2 16.0)
=2
76
Molecular formula is C10H16O4.
EXAMPLE 15
An organic compound, X, which contains only
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen has a molar mass
of about 85 g mol1. When 0.43 g of X is burnt in
excess oxygen, 1.10 g of CO2 and 0.45 g of water
are formed.
77
(a)What is the empirical formula of X?
EXAMPLE 15
X + O2 CO2 + H2O
Mass of C in 0.43 g of X =
1.10
= 0.300 g
Mass of H in 0.43 g of X =
0.45
= 0.0500 g
78
*Mass of O in 0.43 g of X = 0.43 0.300 0.0500

= 0.0800 g
EXAMPLE 15
Element
Mass ratio
C
0.300
H
0.0500
O
0.0800
= 0.0250
= 0.0500
= 0.00500
= 5.00
= 10.0
= 1.00
10
Mole ratio
Simplest
ratio
79
Empirical formula of X is C5H10O.
EXAMPLE 15
(b)What is the molecular formula of X?
Let molecular formula be C5nH10nOn.
n = 85 (5 12.0 + 10 1.0 + 16.0)
= 0.988
= 1 (nearest integer)
80
Molecular formula is C5H10O.
4 STOICHIOMETRIC
CALCULATIONS
81
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship
between quantities of reactants and products
involved in a chemical reaction.
It is based on the balanced chemical equation.
Substances react in a simple ratio of their
amounts.
EXAMPLE 16
Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas evolved at
s.t.p. when 36 g of magnesium react with an
excess of hydrochloric acid.
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Mg H2
Mg reacted = 36 24.3 = 1.48 mol
H evolved = 1.48 mol
2
82
VH2 evolved at s.t.p = 1.48 22.7

= 33.6 dm3
EXAMPLE 17
Isooctane
(C8H18)
undergoes
combustion
efficiently in automobile engines. It is given an
octane number of 100. What is the mass of
oxygen used in the complete combustion of 2.0 g
of isooctane and what is the volume of CO2
produced at s.t.p.?
O2 8CO2 + 9H2O
C8H18
O2 8CO2
83
C8H18 +
EXAMPLE 17
CH
8
18
combusted = 2.0 ( 8 12.0 + 18 1.0 )

= 0.0175 mol
used = 0.0175 = 0.219 mol
O2
Mass of O2 used = 0.219 (2 16.0)

= 7.01 g
CO produced = 0.0175 8 = 0.140 mol
2
VCO produced at s.t.p = 0.140 22.7

= 3.18 dm3
84
4 STOICHIOMETRIC
CALCULATIONS
85
Limiting reagents
The exact amount of a substance required or
produced by a chemical reaction as determined
by the coefficients in the balanced equation is
known as the stoichiometric amount.
Reactants are not always added in
stoichiometric amounts. The reactant that is
completely consumed at the end of the reaction
is the limiting reagent.
4 STOICHIOMETRIC
CALCULATIONS
Limiting reagents
2
20
+ 15
10
?
limiting reagent
86
Reaction stops as soon as the limiting

reagent is totally consumed.
EXAMPLE 18
Sodium and chlorine react together according to
the equation shown:
Na(s) + Cl2(g) NaCl(s)
87
11.5 g of sodium is mixed with 30.0 g of chlorine

gas and heated.
EXAMPLE 18
(i) Which reagent is the limiting reagent?
Na in 11.5 g = 11.5 23.0
= 0.500 mol
in 30.0 g = 30.0 (2 35.5)

Cl2
= 0.423 mol
88
Since Na Cl2, Na is the limiting reagent.
EXAMPLE 18
(ii) What is the mass of the product formed?
Mass of NaCl formed = 0.500 (23.0 + 35.5)
= 29.3 g
(iii) Calculate the mass of reactant present that
remained unreacted.
in excess = 0.423 ( 0.500)

Cl2
= 0.173 mol
89
Mass of Cl2 unreacted = 0.173 (2 35.5)

= 12.3 g
4 STOICHIOMETRIC
CALCULATIONS
90
Theoretical yield
The maximum amount of product that can be
formed from known amounts of reactants in a
reaction according to the chemically balanced
equation (stoichiometrically determined).
The quantity of product that is calculated to
form when all the limiting reagent is used up.
4 STOICHIOMETRIC
CALCULATIONS
Actual yield
The quantity of product that is actually obtained
in the reaction during an experiment
(experimentally determined)
Usually less than the theoretical yield due to:
91
- incomplete reaction
- undesirable side reactions
- product loss during the separation and
purification processes
4 STOICHIOMETRIC
CALCULATIONS
Percentage yield
Actual yield expressed
theoretical yield:
percentage
100%
92
Percentage yield =
as
EXAMPLE 19
An aqueous solution containing 15.0 g of barium
chloride was added to another aqueous solution
containing 10.0 g of iron(III) sulfate. 15.6 g of
barium sulfate was precipitated. Calculate the
percentage yield of barium sulfate.
93
Ar (Ba): 137.3
Ar (Cl): 35.5
Ar (Fe): 55.8
Ar (S): 32.1
Ar (O): 16.0
EXAMPLE 19
3BaCl2(aq) + Fe2(SO4)3(aq)
3BaSO4(s) + 2FeCl3(aq)
3BaCl2 Fe2(SO4)3
BaCl
in 15.0 g = 15.0 (137.3 + 2 35.5)

= 7.20 10-2 mol
Fe (SO )
2
4 3
in 10.0 g
= 10.0 (2 55.8 + 3 32.1 + 12 16.0)

= 2.50 10-2 mol
94
BaCl2 is the limiting reagent.
EXAMPLE 19
Theoretical BaSO
produced = 7.20 10-2 mol
Theoretical mass of BaSO4 produced

= 7.20 10-2 (137.3 + 32.1 + 4 16.0)
= 16.8 g
Percentage yield =
95
= 92.9%
4 STOICHIOMETRIC
CALCULATIONS
Eudiometry
Hydrocarbons burn in excess oxygen according
to the general equation:
96
CxHy(g) + (x + )O2(g) xCO2(g) + H2O(l)
4 STOICHIOMETRIC
CALCULATIONS
Eudiometry
CxHy(g) + ___ O2(g) ___ CO2(g) + ___ H2O(l)

CxHy(g) + ___ O2(g) xCO2(g) + ___ H2O(l)
CxHy(g) + ___ O2(g) xCO2(g) + H2O(l)
97
4 STOICHIOMETRIC
CALCULATIONS
Eudiometry
Before combustion
excess O2 V4
excess O2
V1
O2 reacted
V3
excess O2
CO2
formed
CxHy
Volume of oxygen reacted = V2 V4
Volume of carbon dioxide produced = V3 V4
98
V2
After cooling
After passing
through KOH
4 STOICHIOMETRIC
CALCULATIONS
Eudiometry

1 mol of CxHy produces x mol of CO2
Recall Avogadros Law, V
1 volume of CxHy produces x volume of CO2
V1 volume of CxHy produces V1x volume of CO2
V1 volume of CxHy required V1(x + ) volume of O2
99
1 volume of CxHy required (x + ) volume of O2
EXAMPLE 20
100
20 cm3 of a gaseous hydrocarbon was mixed with

150 cm3 of oxygen. The mixture was sparked that
the hydrocarbon was completely burnt. The
gaseous products had a total volume of 130 cm 3.
When these products were passed over aqueous
potassium hydroxide, the total volume of the
products decreased to 90 cm3. All gases were
measured at s.t.p. Deduce the formula of the
hydrocarbon.
EXAMPLE 20
Volume of hydrocarbon = V1 = 20 cm3
Total volume of oxygen = V2 = 150 cm3
Volume of CO2 and excess O2 = V3 = 130 cm3
101
Volume of excess O2 = V4 = 90 cm3
EXAMPLE 20
Before combustion
20
O2 reacted
130
90
excess O2
CO2
formed
CxHy
102
150
After cooling
excess O2
excess O2
After passing
through NaOH
EXAMPLE 20
(i) What is the volume of carbon dioxide produced
in the explosion?
VCO produced = 130 90 = 40 cm3
2
(ii) What is the volume of oxygen reacted in the

explosion?
VO reacted = 150 90 = 60 cm3
103
EXAMPLE 20
(iii) What is the molecular formula of the
hydrocarbon?
Let the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon
be CxHy.
60 cm3
40 cm3
CxHy(g) xCO2(g)
CxHy(g) (x + )O2(g)
x = 40 20
=2
2 + = 60 20
y=4
Molecular formula of the hydrocarbon is C2H4.
104
20 cm3
EXAMPLE 21
When 10.0 cm3 of but-1-ene, C4H8, were exploded
with an excess of oxygen, there was a contraction of
x cm3. A further contraction of y cm3 took place when
the residual gas was passed through aqueous
sodium hydroxide. Deduce the values of x and y,
assuming all volumes measured at 25 C and 1 atm
pressure.
C4H8(g) + 6O2(g) 4CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
VCO produced = 4 10.0 = 40.0 cm3

y = 40.0
VO reacted = 6 10.0 = 60.0 cm3

2
105
EXAMPLE 21
Before combustion
excess O2
excess O2
60.0
10.0
After passing
After cooling through NaOH
O2 reacted 40.0
excess O2
CO2
formed
x
CxHy
x cm3 = (V C H + V O reacted + V excess O ) (VCO + V excess O )

= V C H + V O reacted VCO
= 10.0 + 60.0 40.0
= 30.0 cm3
x = 30.0
x
106
ATOMS, MOLECULES &

STOICHIOMETRY AND REDOX
107
Part 2:
Volumetric Analysis
Redox
5 VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS
108
Introduction
A quantitative chemical analysis method
employed to determine the concentration of a
solute in a given solution.
Depends
essentially
on
the
accurate
measurement of the volumes of 2 solutions
which react together completely according to
the stoichiometry of the chemical equation
109
Equivalence point (stoichiometric point):

The point during titration at which stoichiometric
amounts of reactants have reacted, i.e. reaction
is just complete with only products of the
reaction present without the reactants.
Independent of the indicator used
End point:
The point during titration when the indicator
changes colour.
Delivery of the titrant is stopped and the volume
of titrant added is recorded.
End-point is indicated by a suitable indicator
which undergoes a colour change.
Sometimes, one of the 2 solutions undergoes a
colour change, and the titration is therefore selfindicative, e.g. redox titration involving acidified
potassium manganate(VII).
110
111
Two main types of titrations:

Acid-base titrations does not involve a change
in oxidation state
Redox titrations involves a change in oxidation
state
Choice of indicators for acid-base titrations:
Colour of indicator at
Working
pH Range
pH below
working pH
range
pH 3 5
red
methyl orange
screened
pH 3 5
violet
methyl orange
phenolphthalein pH 8 10 colourless
thymol blue
orange
pH above
working pH
range
yellow
grey
green
End point
pale pink
yellow (when
acid is added
to strong base)
pH 8 10 yellow/red
blue (when
strong base is
added to acid)
pink
blue
112
Indicator
113
Working pH range of an indicator refers to the

pH range (about 2 units) in which the indicator
changes colour
14
Choosing an indicator for titration

13
12
Ideally, the visible end-point
will coincide with
11
the equivalence point.
10
Equivalence
point at pH = 7
9
An indicator should show 8a colour change at a
pH
7
pH value that coincides with
the sharp
change
X
6
in pH near the equivalence5 point.
4
In other words, the working
pH range of the
3
indicator must lie within the
sharp change in pH
2
near the equivalence point.1
0
114
Volume of base added
115
Universal indicator
A mixture of indicators which give a gradual
change in colour over a wide range of pH
EXAMPLE 22
116
25.0 cm3 of NaOH(aq) required 10.00 cm 3 of

0.100 mol dm3 H2SO4(aq) for complete
neutralisation using phenolphthalein as indicator.
Calculate the concentration of NaOH in the
aqueous solution in mol dm3.
EXAMPLE 22
2NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + 2H2O
2NaOH H2SO4
in 10.00 cm3 =
H2SO4
= 1.00 10-3 mol
-3
neutralised
=
2
1.00
10
NaOH
= 2.00 10-3 mol
117
[NaOH] = (2.00 10-3)

= 0.0800 mol dm-3
EXAMPLE 23
118
20.20 cm3 of an acid, HxA(aq), of concentration

0.050 mol dm3, neutralised 25.0 cm3 of NaOH(aq)
of concentration 0.080 mol dm 3. Deduce the
amount of NaOH that reacted with 1 mol of H xA
and thus the value of x.
EXAMPLE 23
HxA + xNaOH NaxA + xH2O
in 20.20 cm3 = 0.050 = 1.01 10-3 mol
in 25.0 cm3 = 0.080 = 2.00 10-3 mol
HxA
NaOH
NaOH that will react with 1 mol of HxA
Thus, the value of x is 2 (since x is an integer).
119
= (2.00 10-3) (1.01 10-3)

= 1.98 mol
2 mol
Acid-carbonate and acid-hydrogencarbonate
titrations
Acid-hydrogencarbonate titrations can be
represented by the following equation:
HCO3(aq) + H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
120
1 mol of H+ ions react with 1 mol of HCO3 ion.
Acid-carbonate and acid-hydrogencarbonate
titrations
Acid-carbonate titrations can be represented by
the following equation:
CO32(aq) + 2H+(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
121
2 mol of H+ ions react with 1 mol of CO32 ion.
CO32(aq) + H+(aq) HCO3(aq)
Equivalence point 1: thymol blue/
phenolphthalein
Equivalence point 2:
methyl orange

x
2x
Volume of acid added /cm3
122
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
pH 7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
EXAMPLE 24
123
1.400 g of pure anhydrous sodium carbonate,

Na2CO3, was dissolved in distilled water and made
up to 250 cm3. Methyl orange was added to
25.0 cm3 of this prepared solution and 24.60 cm 3 of
HCl(aq) was required for the methyl orange to
change from yellow to orange. Calculate the
concentration of HCl in mol dm3.
EXAMPLE 24
pH

24.60
Volume of HCl added /cm3
124
EXAMPLE 24
Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + CO2 + H2O
Na2CO3
Na2CO3
in 250 cm3 =
= 1.32 10-2 mol
in 25.0 cm3 = 1.32 10-2
= 1.32 10-3 mol
= 2.64 10-3 mol

[HCl] = (2.64 10-3) = 0.107 mol dm-3
125
HCl in 24.60 cm3 = 2 1.32 10-2
An aqueous solution contains both sodium

hydrogencarbonate and potassium carbonate.
20.0 cm3 of this solution required 8.40 cm 3 of
0.100 mol dm3 HCl(aq) to decolourise
phenolphthalein
when
a
few
drops
of
phenolphthalein was used as indicator. On the
addition of a few drops of methyl orange to the
resulting solution, a further 19.20 cm 3 of HCl(aq)
was required to turn methyl orange from yellow to
orange. Calculate the concentration, in g dm 3, of
sodium
hydrogencarbonate
and
potassium
carbonate in the aqueous solution.
126
EXAMPLE 25
EXAMPLE 25
pH

8.40
19.20
Volume of HCl added /cm3
127
EXAMPLE 25
Reaction(s) that K2CO3 undergo
K2CO3(aq) + HCl(aq) KHCO3(aq) + KCl(aq)
8.40 cm3
(phenolphthalein)
KHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) + KCl(aq)
8.40 cm3 19.20 cm3 (methyl orange)
Reaction(s) that NaHCO3 undergo
128
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) CO2(g) + H2O(l) + NaCl(aq)

(methyl orange)
19.20 8.40
= 10.80 cm3
EXAMPLE 25
Using phenolphthalein as indicator:
K2CO3 + HCl KHCO3 + KCl
(this step required 8.40 cm3 of HCl(aq) to
react with the amount of K2CO3)
129
Using methyl orange as indicator:

HCO3 + H+ CO2 + H2O
(this step required 19.20 cm3 of HCl(aq) to
react with HCO3 from NaHCO3 as well as
KHCO3 formed from the previous step from
K2CO3)
EXAMPLE 25
in 20.0 cm3 = 0.100 = 8.40 10-4 mol
K2CO3
Concentration of K2CO3
= [(8.40 10-4) ] (2 39.1 + 12.0 + 3 16.0)
= 5.80 g dm-3
NaHCO3
in 20.0 cm3 = 0.100 = 1.08 10-3 mol
130
Concentration of NaHCO3
= [(1.08 10-3) ] (23.0 + 1.0 + 12.0 + 3 16.0)
= 4.54 g dm-3
131
Back titrations
In back titrations, a known amount of reagent A
is added in excess to reagent B. The amount of
A that remained unreacted by reagent B is
determined by titration. By subtracting the
excess amount of A from the initial amount of A
added, the exact amount of A that reacted with
reagent B can be determined.
Back titrations
132
How much pizza was eaten?
Back titrations
A+B C
+
A (excess)
133
C + unreacted A
EXAMPLE 26
FA 1 is a mixture of NaCl(s) and NaHCO3(s). FA 2
is an aqueous solution containing 30.0 g of FA 1
per dm3. 40.0 cm3 of 0.200 mol dm-3 HCl(aq) was
added to 25.0 cm3 of FA 2 in a conical flask and
the resultant solution required 21.60 cm 3 of 0.150
mol dm3 NaOH(aq) for complete neutralisation.
Calculate
(i) the number of moles of NaOH reacted.
in 21.60 cm3 = 0.150

= 3.24 10-3 mol
134
NaOH
EXAMPLE 26
(ii) the number of moles of HCl that reacted
the NaHCO3 in 25.0 cm3 of FA 2.
with
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O

NaOH HCl
HCl in resultant solution = 3.24 10-3 mol (in excess)

3
i
n
40.0
cm
of
FA
2
=
0.200
HCl
= 8.00 10-3 mol
135
HCl reacted with NaHCO3 = 8.00 10-3 3.24 10-3

= 4.76 10-3 mol
EXAMPLE 26
(iii) the number of moles of NaHCO3 in 25.0 cm3
of FA 2.
NaHCO3 + HCl NaCl + CO2 + H2O
NaHCO3 HCl
NaHCO in 25.0 cm3 of FA 2 = 4.76 10-3 mol
136
EXAMPLE 26
(iv)
the percentage of NaHCO3 in FA 1

(by mass).
Mass of NaHCO3 in 25.0 cm3 of FA 2

= 4.76 103 (23.0 + 1.0 + 12.0 + 3 16.0)
= 0.400 g
Mass of NaHCO3 in 1 dm3 of FA 2 = 0.400
= 16.0 g
Percentage of NaHCO3 in FA 1 = 100
137
= 53.3%
EXAMPLE 27
138
A solid sample containing ammonium sulfate,

(NH4)2SO4, was warmed with 250 cm3 of
0.800 mol dm3 NaOH(aq). After the evolution of
ammonia ceased, the resultant solution was
neutralised by 85.00 cm3 of 0.500 mol dm-3
HCl(aq). What is the mass of ammonium sulfate in
the sample?
EXAMPLE 27
(NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH 2NH3 + Na2SO4 + 2H2O
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
required for neutralisation = 0.500

HCl
NaOH
remaining after reaction = 0.0425 mol
NaOH
(NH4)2SO4
reacted with (NH4)2SO4 = (0.800 ) 0.0425

= 0.158 mol
reacted with NaOH = 0.158
= 0.0790 mol
Mass of (NH4)2SO4 = 10.4 g
139
= 0.0425 mol
140
6 REDOX
6 REDOX
Simultaneous occurrence of reduction and
oxidation
Reduction
Loss in oxygen
Gain in hydrogen
Gain in electrons
Decrease in
oxidation state
Total number of electrons lost by oxidised

species = total number of electrons gained by
reduced species.
141
Oxidation
Gain in oxygen
Loss in hydrogen
Loss in electrons
Increase in
oxidation state
6 REDOX
Oxidising agent
Zn
Cu2+
gains electrons (Reduction)
Zn2+
Cu
loses electrons (Oxidation)
142
Reducing agent
Oxidising Agent
(reduced)
Cr2O72- Cr3+
Reducing Agent
(oxidised)
I- I 2
MnO4- Mn2+
(acidic medium)
S2O32- S4O62-
MnO4 MnO2
(neutral/alkaline medium)
H2O2 H2O
M Mn+
(reactive metals)
H2O2 O2
Fe3+ Fe2+
Fe2+ Fe3+
143
6 REDOX
6 REDOX
144
Assigning oxidation state/number

1. The oxidation state of an element in its
uncombined form is 0.
E.g. oxidation state of oxygen in O2 gas is
0, oxidation state sodium in Na metal is 0.
2. The oxidation state of an element in
monoatomic ions (simple ions) is equal to its
charge.
E.g. oxidation state of magnesium in Mg2+
is +2, oxidation state of chlorine in Cl is 1.
6 REDOX
3. The algebraic sum of the oxidation states of all
the atoms in a chemical species is equal to its
charge.
E.g. the sum of the oxidation states of
carbon and three oxygen atoms in carbonate
ion (CO32) is -2;
145
the sum of the oxidation states of two

hydrogen
one oxygen atom in water
molecule (H2O) is 0.
6 REDOX
Element
Group I metals
(e.g. Li, Na, K)
Group II metals
(e.g. Be, Mg, Ca)
O.S.
Exceptions
+1
No exceptions
+2
No exceptions
146

4. The oxidation states of the following elements
in various compounds are usually constant,
and can be used as reference to compute the
oxidation state of another element in a
chemical species using Rule 3.
Element
O.S.
fluorine
chlorine &
bromine
oxygen
hydrogen
+1
Exceptions
no exceptions (fluorine is the most
electronegative element)
when bonded to a more electronegative
element (e.g. BrF5, where Br has
oxidation state of +5)
peroxides (e.g. H2O2, Na2O2) where O
has oxidation state of 1;
superoxides (e.g. NaO2, KO2) where O
has oxidation state of ;
OF2 where O has oxidation state of +2
metal hydrides (e.g. NaH, MgH2) where
H has oxidation state of 1
147
6 REDOX
6 REDOX
5. In any chemical species consisting of 2
elements only, the more electronegative
element has the negative oxidation state.
Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an
atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of
electrons in a bond to itself.
148
Across a period, electronegativity increases.

Down a group, electronegativity decreases.
EXAMPLE 28
Calculate the oxidation state of
(i) phosphorus in PO43
Let the oxidation state of phosphorus in PO43 be x.
x + 4(2) = 3
149
x = +5
EXAMPLE 28
Calculate the oxidation state of
(ii) lead in Pb3O4
Let the oxidation state of lead in Pb3O4 be x.
3(x) + 4(2) = 0
3x = +8
x=+
150
This is the average oxidation state of lead in Pb3O4.

Pb3O4 is known as dilead(II) lead(IV) oxide.
EXAMPLE 29
Is the following reaction a redox reaction?
Explain your answer.
2CrO42 + 2H+ Cr2O72 + H2O
+6 2
+1
+6
+1 2
This is not a redox reaction.
151
There is no change in oxidation state of any of the

elements in the reactants.
6 REDOX
Disproportionation
A redox reaction in which one species is
simultaneously oxidised and reduced.
Examples of disproportionation reactions:
(i) Cl2 + 2OH ClO + Cl + H2O
152
Oxidation state of chlorine increases from 0 in Cl2

to +1 in ClO and decreases from 0 in Cl2 to
1 in Cl simultaneously.
6 REDOX
Disproportionation
Examples of disproportionation reactions:
(ii) 2H2O2 2H2O + O2
153
Oxidation state of oxygen increases from 1 in

H2O2 to 0 in O2 and decreases from 1 in H2O2 to
2 in H2O simultaneously.
6 REDOX
Balancing equations for redox reactions
Two criteria:
Mass balance / material balance
154
Charge balance
6 REDOX
Half-equation method (acidic medium):
1. Separate the equation into two incomplete
half-equations, one for oxidation and the other
for reduction.
155
2. Balance both the half-equations using the

following steps:
i. Balance elements being reduced/oxidised.
ii. Balance oxygen atoms by adding H2O.
iii. Balance hydrogen atoms by adding H.
iv. Balance charges by adding electrons.
6 REDOX
Half-equation method (acidic medium):
3. Multiply the balanced half-equations by
appropriate integers such that the number of
electrons in both half-equations are equal.
156
4. Combine the resulting half-equations together

and eliminate any common species on both
sides to obtain the overall balanced equation.
EXAMPLE 30
Balance the following equations for reactions that
occur in an acidic medium.
Cr2O72 is reduced to Cr3+
(i) Cr2O72 + Fe2+ Cr3+ + Fe3+
157
Fe2+ is oxidised to Fe3+
EXAMPLE 30
Step 1:
Separate the equation into two incomplete halfequations, one for oxidation and the other for
reduction.
Oxidation half-equation
Fe2+ Fe3+
Reduction half-equation
Cr2O72 Cr3+
Step 2(i):
Balance the elements being reduced/oxidised.
Cr2O72 2Cr3+
158
Fe2+ Fe3+
EXAMPLE 30
Step 2(ii):
Balance oxygen atoms by adding H2O.
Cr2O72 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Fe2+ Fe3+
Step 2(iii):
Balance hydrogen atoms by adding H+.
Fe2+ Fe3+
14H+ + Cr2O72 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
overall charge = + 12
overall charge = + 6
159
Step 2(iv):
Balance charges by adding electrons.
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e
6e + Cr2O72 + 14H+ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
EXAMPLE 30
Step 3:
Multiply
the
balanced
half-equations
by
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e ( 6)
6Fe2+ 6Fe3+ + 6e
160
Cr2O72 + 14H+ + 6e 2Cr3+ + 7H2O ( 1)
EXAMPLE 30
Step 4:
Combine the resulting half-equations together,
eliminate any common species on both sides to
obtain the overall balanced equation.
6Fe2+
6Fe3+ + 6e
Cr2O72 + 14H+ + 6e 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

Overall equation:
Cr2O72 + 14H+ + 6Fe2+ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O + 6Fe3+
161
Cr2O72 + 14H+ + 6e + 6Fe2+

2Cr3+ + 7H2O + 6Fe3+ + 6e
EXAMPLE 30
occur in an acidic medium.
MnO4 is reduced to Mn2+
(ii) MnO4 + H2O2 Mn2+ + O2
162
H2O2 is oxidised to O2
EXAMPLE 30
Step 1:
Separate the equation into two incomplete
half-equations, one for oxidation and the other for
reduction.
H2O2 O2
MnO4 Mn2+
Step 2(i):
Balance the elements other than H and O.
MnO4 Mn2+
163
H2O2 O2
EXAMPLE 30
Step 2(ii):
Balance oxygen atoms by adding H2O.
H2O2 O2
MnO4 Mn2+ + 4H2O
Step 2(iii):
Balance hydrogen atoms by adding H+.
H2O2 O2 + 2H+
8H+ + MnO4 Mn2+ + 4H2O
5e + 8H+ + MnO4 Mn2+ + 4H2O
164
Step 2(iv):
Balance charges by adding electrons to the side
with the greater overall positive charge.
H2O2 O2 + 2H+ + 2e
EXAMPLE 30
Step 3:
Multiply
the
balanced
half-equations
by
H2O2 O2 + 2H+ + 2e ( 5)
5H2O2 5O2 + 10H+ + 10e
5e + 8H+ + MnO4 Mn2+ + 4H2O ( 2)
165
10e + 16H+ + 2MnO4 2Mn2+ + 8H2O
EXAMPLE 30
Step 4:
Combine the resulting half-equations together,
eliminate any common species on both sides to
obtain the overall balanced equation.
Overall equation:
6
5H2O2 + 16H+ + 2MnO4 + 10e
2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5O2 + 10H+ + 10e
2MnO4 + 6H+ + 5H2O2 2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 5O2
166
5H2O2
5O2 + 10H+ + 10e
10e + 16H+ + 2MnO4 2Mn2+ + 8H2O
6 REDOX
Half-equation method (alkaline/neutral medium):
2. Balance both the half-equations using the following

steps:
i. Balance elements being reduced/oxidised.
ii. Balance oxygen atoms by adding H2O.
iii. Balance hydrogen atoms by adding H+.
iv. Neutralise any added H+ by adding OH to
both sides of the equation.
v. Balance charges by adding electrons.
167
1. Separate the equation into two incomplete

half-equations, one for oxidation and the other for
reduction.
6 REDOX
Half-equation method (alkaline/neutral medium):
3. Multiply the balanced half-equations by
168
4. Combine the resulting half-equations together

and eliminate any common species on both
sides to obtain the overall balanced equation.
EXAMPLE 31
occur in an alkaline medium.
Cl2 is reduced to Cl
(i) Cl2 ClO3 + Cl
169
Cl2 is oxidised to ClO3
EXAMPLE 31
Cl2 ClO3
Cl2 2ClO3
2(ii)
Cl2 2Cl
Cl2 + 6H2O 2ClO3
2(iii)
Cl2 2Cl
Cl2 + 6H2O 2ClO3 + 12H+
2(iv) Cl2 2Cl
Cl2 + 6H2O + 12OH

2ClO3 + 12H+ + 12OH
Cl2 + 12OH 2ClO3 + 6H2O
170
Step
Cl2 Cl
1
Cl2 2Cl
2(i)
EXAMPLE 31
Step
2(v) Cl2 + 2e 2Cl
3 5Cl2 + 10e 10Cl
Cl2 + 12OH
2ClO3 + 6H2O + 10e
Cl2 + 12OH
2ClO3 + 6H2O + 10e
Overall equation:
5Cl2 + 10e + Cl2 + 12OH
10Cl + 2ClO3 + 6H2O + 10e
3Cl2 + 6OH 5Cl + ClO3 + 3H2O
171
6Cl2 + 12OH 10Cl + 2ClO3 + 6H2O
EXAMPLE 31
(ii) MnO4 + Fe2+ MnO2 + Fe3+
MnO4 MnO2
4OH + 4H+ + MnO4 MnO2 + 2H2O + 4OH
172
3e + 2H2O + MnO4 MnO2 + 4OH
EXAMPLE 31
(ii) MnO4 + Fe2+ MnO2 + Fe3+
Fe2+ Fe3+
Fe2+ Fe3+ + e
MnO4 + 2H2O + 3Fe2+ MnO2 + 4OH + 3Fe3+
173
Overall equation:
6 REDOX
174
Calculations in redox titrations

Three common types of redox titrations:
manganate(VII) titrations
dichromate(VI) titrations
iodine-thiosulfate titrations
6 REDOX
(i) manganate(VII) titrations
Manganate(VII) ion is a powerful oxidising
agent.
In acidic medium,
MnO4 + 8H+ + 5e Mn2+ + 4H2O
pale pink
(but appears
colourless in
diluted solutions)
175
purple
6 REDOX
Sulfuric acid is used to provide the acidic
medium for manganate(VII) titrations.
Nitric acid and hydrochloric acid are not
used, as nitric acid is an oxidising agent
itself, and hydrochloric acid can be oxidised
by manganate(VII).
176
No indicator is necessary for manganate(VII)

titrations.
6 REDOX
The end-point for manganate(VII) titration
(if other reducing agent and product are also
colourless) occurs when one excess drop of
purple KMnO4(aq) turns the solution in the
conical flask from colourless to pale pink.
177
In the titration of Fe2+(aq) with MnO4(aq) in

acidic medium, the colour change at the endpoint is yellow (Fe3+) to orange (yellow + pink).
6 REDOX
(ii)dichromate(VI) titrations
Dichromate(VI) ion is a weaker oxidising agent
than manganate(VII) ion.
In acidic medium,
Cr2O72 + 14H+ + 6e
orange 2Cr3+ + 7H O
2
178
green
6 REDOX
(iii)
Thiosulfate ion (S2O32) is a common reducing

agent for iodine, given by the equation:
I2 + 2S2O32 2I + S4O62
colourless
179
brown
6 REDOX
(iii)
180
When starch is used as an indicator, it is

usually added near the end-point of the
titration.
The unreacted iodine forms a dark blue
complex with starch, and the solution will turn
colourless when all of the iodine is used up.
6 REDOX
(iii)
181
If the starch solution is added when the

concentration of iodine is high, the dark blue
colour could persist as some of the iodine may
remain trapped in the starch-iodine complex.
In the absence of starch as an indicator, the
colour change at the endpoint is pale yellow to
colourless.
6 REDOX
(iii)
182
Iodine-thiosulfate titrations can be used to

determine the amount of:
(i) iodine directly
(ii) the amount of oxidising agent that will
liberate iodine with potassium iodide
EXAMPLE 32
183
45.00 cm3 of a stock solution of potassium

dichromate(VI) was transferred using a burette into
a 250 cm3 volumetric flask and made up to the mark
with distilled water. This diluted solution of
potassium dichromate(VI) was standardised by
titration with sodium ethanedioate solution. If
47.00 cm3 of the diluted dichromate(VI) solution was
needed to oxidise 25.0 cm3 of ethanedioate solution
of concentration 0.0925 mol dm-3, what is the
concentration of potassium dichromate(VI) in the
stock solution?
EXAMPLE 32
Reduction half equation:
Cr2O72 + 14H+ + 6e 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Oxidation half-equation:
C2O42 2CO2 + 2e
Overall equation:
Cr2O72 + 14H+ + 3C2O42 2Cr3+ + 7H2O + 6CO2
184
Cr2O72 3C2O42
EXAMPLE 32
C2O42
in 25.0 cm3 = 0.0925

= 2.31 10-3 mol
Cr O 2 in 47.00 cm3 of diluted solution

2
= (2.31 10-3) 3 = 7.70 10-4 mol

[K2Cr2O7] in the diluted solution = (7.70 10-4)
[K2Cr2O7] in the stock solution
= (1.64 10-2 )
= 9.11 10-2 mol dm-3
185
= 1.64 10-2 mol dm-3
6 REDOX
The change in oxidation state of an element in a

redox reaction can be determined by computing the
amount of electrons gained or lost per mole of the
species containing the element in the reaction.
E.g. Xn+ X(n+1)+ + e
1 mol of Xn+ lost 1 mol of e oxidation state of
element X increases by 1 unit
The oxidation state of the element in the product of
a redox reaction can be determined if the oxidation
state of the element in the reactant is known, and
vice versa.
186
EXAMPLE 33
Vanadium(II) ions, V2+, can be oxidised
quantitatively by acidified manganate(VII) ions to a
higher oxidation state. 25.0 cm3 of an aqueous
solution of V2+ ions of concentration 0.0200 mol
dm3 was found to react with 15.00 cm3 of 0.0200
mol dm3 acidified manganate(VII) ions. Determine
the oxidation state of vanadium in the product.
MnO4
V2+
in 15.00 cm3 = 0.0200 = 3.00 10-4 mol
in 25.0 cm3 = 0.0200 = 5.00 10-4 mol

187
EXAMPLE 33
In acidic medium, MnO4 is reduced according to
the equation as shown:
MnO4 + 8H+ + 5e Mn2+ + 4H2O
MnO4 5e
e involved = 3.00 10-4 5 = 1.50 10-3 mol
V2+ ? + 3e
Oxidation state of V in the product = +2 ( 3)
= +5
188
e lost by 1 mol of V2+ = 1.50 10-3 (5.00 10-4)

= 3.00 mol
189
THE END

Atoms, Molecules & Stoichiometry Redox

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Atoms, Molecules & Stoichiometry Redox

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ATOMS, MOLECULES &

Topics for 2016

The topics are organised into two levels reinforced by

Paper Type of Paper

1) All are to purchase a set of practical goggles

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International prototype kilogram

Slowly gaining mass

Express quantities or amounts of chemical substance

Defined based on Avogadros constant

October 23, 6:02 AM 6:02 PM

From your Data Booklet

ATOMS, MOLECULES &

Proton number (Z)

Relative isotopic mass

Relative atomic mass (Ar)

Percentage abundance of 35Cl = 73.4%

Relative molecular mass (Mr)

Relative molecular mass (Mr)

Mr of C6H5Cl = 6 12.0 + 5 1.0 + 35.5

sodium chloride lattice

2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

1023 = 100 000 000 000 000 000

The entire surface of 100 earth sized

THE GREEN PEA ANALOGY

Number of atoms in 1 g of 12C

2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

Number of formula units of NH4NO3

Total number of ions = 7.53 1022 2

Total number of atoms in 10 g of NH4NO3

2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

Think about it: Is this statement ambiguous?

2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

(ii) Molar mass of SO42 = 32.1 + 4 16.0

2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

At constant temperature and pressure, V

2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.)

room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.)

(ii) Volume occupied by 2 mol of H2(g) at r.t.p.

2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

(ii) [NaOH] = 8.00 (23.0 + 16.0 + 1.0)

in 25.0 cm3 of solution

= 1.00 10-3 mol

2 THE MOLE CONCEPT

CxHy(g) + _ O2(g) _ CO2(g) + ___ H2O(l)