THERMODYNAMIC II

CHAPTER 4
REFRIGERATION &
HEAT PUMPS/HEAT ENGINE

TOPICS
4.1

Introduction

4.2

Reversed Heat Engine Cycle

4.3

Performance of Refrigeration Cycle

and Heat Pump

4.4

The Ideal Vapor-Compression

Refrigeration Cycle

4.5

The Practical Refrigeration Cycle

4.6

Refrigeration Load

4.7

Flash Chamber

4.8

Multistage Compression
Refrigeration System

4.9

Cascade Refrigeration System

4.10

Absorption Refrigeration Systems

2

INTRODUCTION
A refrigerator is a heat engine in which work is done on a
refrigerant substance in order to collect energy from a
cold region and exhaust it in a higher temperature region,
thereby further cooling the cold region.
2nd Law of Thermodynamics (The Clausius statement)
it is impossible for heat to flow from a colder body to
a warmer body without any work having been done to
accomplish this flow

REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS

Heat engines use heat to produce work.
Reversed heat engines use work to remove heat.
Refrigerators maintain cold space by removing
heat from it to a high-temperature region
Refrigerants are used as working fluid
Heat pumps maintain a hot space by absorbing
heat from a low temperature-region
Coefficient of Performance (COP) is the criteria used
to measure the performance of refrigerators &
heat pumps

WARM
ENVIRONMENT
(T2)

QH/Q2
REFRIGERATOR

win

QL/Q1 (Cooling Effect / Refrigerating Effect)

(T1)
MAINTAINED COLD
ENVIRONMENT

Refrigerator

coolingeffect QL
Q L
COPR

workinput Win Win

MAINTAINED
WARM
ENVIRONMENT
(T1)

Q1/QH (Heating Effect)

HEAT PUMP

win

Q2/QL

(T2)
COLD
ENVIRONMENT

COPHP

heating effect QH Q H

work input
Win Win

Heat Pump

 From 1st Law of thermodynamics

dQ=dW;
The net work input to the system,W=W12-W34
The net heat rejected by the system;Q=Q2-Q1
Q H Q L Win

Q Win
QH
L
Win
Win
COPHP

QL
1
Win

COPHP COPR 1

If COPR is positive, then COPHP > 1

The rate of heat removal from a system is called cooling
capacity.
Cooling capacity is normally measured in tons of
refrigeration
1 ton = 211 kJ/min

CARNOT REVERSED HEAT ENGINE CYCLE

The most efficient heat engine is represented by
the Carnot cycle. (Remember that Carnot cycle is
reversible)
A reversed heat engine is represented by
Carnot cycle which operates in a reversed
direction
This cycle is called a reversed Carnot cycle
A refrigerator/heat pump using this cycle is
called Carnot refrigerator/Carnot heat pump
Its function is to remove heat from a lowtemperature region to a high-temperature
region.

QH
3

Condenser

Pump

Turbine
4
Plant layout for
Reversed
Carnot Cycle

Evaporator
QL

T
QH
2

T-s Diagram with

saturation line of
Refrigerant

W
4

1
QL
s
9

PROCESSES
(1 2)
Wet vapor enters pump and is pumped
(Isentropic)
Temperature is increased
(2 3)
Vapor is condensed at constant
temperature
Heat rejected by refrigerant
(3 4)
Isentropic expansion (Isentropic)
Temperature is reduced
(4 1)
Heat for evaporation process is supplied
from cold source in evaporator at constant

10

PERFORMANCE OF REFRIGERATION CYCLE AND

HEAT PUMP
From T-s diagram,
and
TL= T1 = T4

TH= T2 = T3

s1 = s2

and

s4 = s3

QL= TL(s1 s4)

and

QH= -TH(s3 s2)

Win = QH - QL
= -TH(s3 s2) T1(s1 s4) = -T2(s4 s1) T1(s1 s4)
= (T2 T1) (s1 s4)
COPR

So, COPR can be given as follows:

COPR
COPR

QL
Win

T1 s1 s4
T1 T 2 s1 s4

T1
TL
1

T1 T 2 T H T L T H 1
TL
11

Similarly for COPHP, we get:

COPHP

T2
TH
1

T2 T1 TH TL 1 TL

TH

12

 EXAMPLE 4.1

A refrigerator operates between evaporator

temperature and condenser temperature of
-30oC and 35oC respectively. Calculate the
maximum possible COPR.
If the COPR for actual refrigerator is 80% of
ideal
refrigerator,
calculate
the
power
required for a cooling effect of 5kW.

13

 The reversed Carnot is the most efficient

refrigeration cycle operating between two
fixed temperatures
This cycle is impractical because,
In process (1 2) it is difficult to compress
liquid-vapor mixture
In process (3 4) it is difficult to expand
high-moisture-content refrigerant.
Reversed Carnot cycle is only for comparison
with the actual refrigeration cycles

14

THE IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION CYCLE

To make the cycle practical;
the refrigerant is vaporized completely before
compression
The expansion engine (turbine) is replaced by a
throttle valve (expansion with no enthalpy
change)
Since compression process is carried out in vapor
state, the cycle is then called the Vapor-Compression
Cycle
This type of cycle is commonly used in domestic
refrigerators and air conditioning systems.
Condenser

Expansion
Valve

W in

Evaporator

15

PROCESS OF VAPOR-COMPRESSION CYCLE

(1 2)-Isentropic compression until vapor is

superheated
(2 3)-Constant pressure heat rejection in condenser
(3 4)-Throttling in an expansion device
(4 1)-Constant pressure heat absorption in an
T
(K)

evaporator

1
s(kJ/kgK

16

PROCESS
OF VAPOR-COMPRESSION CYCLE

From S.F.E.E: dQ=dW ;h1+Q=h2+W

Apply Process 4-1;Evaparotar

Q1=(h1-h4)=Refrigeration Effect
Apply Process 1-2:Compressor
W=(h1-h2)=-(h2-h1)=Work done on the refrigerant=+
(h2-h1)
If the process is reversible and adiabatic, then it is
isentropic;
apply process 2-3;Condensor
Q2=(h2-h3)=-(h3-h2)
Heat rejected by the refrigerant =+(h2-h3)
Apply Process 3-4; Engine/Turbine
W=h4-h3: in this case the expansion engine replaced by
throttle valve, so W=0;
h3=h4
17

Condenser
3

2
Win

Expansion
Valve
4

Evaporator

T
2

QH
Win

1
QL
s
18

P-h DIAGRAM
2 methods can be used for cycle analysis.
Using property table for refrigerants
Using the P-h diagram

s co
nsta
nt

P
q2 = h 2 h3

xc

on
sta
n

ant
v c ons t

q2 = h 1 h 4

1
h
win = h2 h1
19

P-h Diagram for Refrigerant 134a

20

UNDERCOOLING (SUBCOOLING) AND ITS EFFECTS

In the condenser, the vapor can be further cooled at constant

pressure to a temperature that is lower than temperature in
condenser
T
2
3
Cooling water
temperature

1
s

21

Undercooling (subcooling) increases the refrigerating effect

(h1 h4) > (h1 h4) where h4 is enthalpy with undercooling
(subcooling) and h4 is initial enthalpy

Undercooling (subcooling) is limited by temperature of cooling

water and temperature difference of cycle

T
2
3
3

Cooling water
temperature
4

1
s

22

EXAMPLE 4.2

In a refrigeration cycle, pressure of R134a

refrigerant is 2 bar and condenser pressure
of 12 bar. Calculate refrigerating effect (QL)
per unit mass and COPR for:i) Ideal reverse Carnot cycle
ii) Ideal vapor compression cycle without
superheating and undercooling
iii) Ideal vapor compression cycle with
superheating
iv) Ideal vapor compression cycle with
superheating
and
undercooling
(subcooling) by 10K

23

THE PRACTICAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION CYCLES

Because of the irreversible nature of most
processes of the cycle, the actual cycle
deviates from actual cycle.
Source of irreversibilities
Pressure drop in fluid
Heat transfer with surroundings
It is difficult to get saturated vapor at
compressor inlet. So in practice the refrigerant
is slightly superheated at compressor inlet.
It is also difficult to get saturated liquid at
condenser exit. So in practice undercooling
(subcooling) (3 3a)is used.

24

Pressure drop occurs in:

(1 1a)
:
line connecting
evaporator and
compressor
(2 3):
within condenser
(4 4a):
line between
expansion valve and
evaporator
(4a 1):
within evaporator

2b

T
2s

2a

Undercooling

3
Pressure drop

3a
4

4a

1a

During actual compression, entropy might increase or decrease. (Point

2 might be somewhere between 2a and 2b)

25

EXAMPLE 4.3

R134a enters compressor as superheated vapor

at 0.14 MPa and -10oC at a rate of 0.05 kg/s and
leaves at 0.8 MPa and 50oC. After cooling in
condenser, the temperature is 26oC and 0.72
MPa. Then the refrigerant is throttled to 0.15
MPa.
Calculate:i)

Rate of heat removal from the refrigerated

space

ii) Power input to the compressor

iii) Isentropic efficiency of the compressor
iv) COPR

26

4.6

REFRIGERATION LOAD

Refrigeration Capacity,Q L
defined as the amount of heat that has to be
transferred from a cold space per unit time
determines the mass flow rate of refrigerant
1 ton = 200Btu/min = 211kJ/min = 3.516kW
ton : the rate of heat transfer to produce 2000 lb of
ice at 0oC (32o)F from liquid water at 0oC (32oF) in 24
hours
Mass flow rate of refrigerant
refrigerator capacity

m
refrigerating effect per unit mass

27

EXAMPLE 4.4
Calculate the refrigerating capacity of the
refrigerator in unit ton if given the enthalpy at
the outlet and inlet of the evaporator, and the
mass flow rate are 179.01 kJ/kg, 60.58 kJ/kg and
0.05 kg/s respectively.
Given,

m
0.05 kg s

0.05 60
So,
Q

3.0 kg min

h1 h4
m

3.0 kg min179.01 60.58 kJ kg

355.29 kJ min

1ton
211 kJ min

1.684ton

28

FLASH CHAMBER
Flash chamber is used
refrigeration system

in a multi-staging

It separates vapor and liquid refrigerant during

the throttling process
The purpose is to avoid vapor refrigerants from
entering evaporator
The vapor developed during throttling (flash
vapor) is bled out of the throttling device and
fed back to the compressor

29

MULTISTAGE COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION

SYSTEM
QH

A multistage
compression
refrigeration
system is one
example of a
system that
uses a flash
chamber
It can be
carried out
with the use
of one or more
compressors

Condenser

4
Win

Expansion
Valve

6
Flash Chamber

7
Expansion
Valve

Win

8
Evaporator

4
QL

Cycle Layout of a Two-Stage Compression

Refrigeration System

30

T-s DIAGRAM
The T-s diagram representing the cycle of a twostage vapor-compression cycle
T

4
5

2
9

7
6
8

3
1

31

TWO-STAGE REFRIGERATION CYCLE

REPRESENTED BY THE P-h DIAGRAM
The P-h diagram is a more convenient
representation of the cycle because it can easily
be compared to the plant layout
P
5

Flash Chamber

Evaporator

Condenser

3
9

1
h
32

1kg refrigerant starts his journey

through condenser
1kg liquid enters 1st throttle valve
P
1kg (mostly liquid) enters flash
chamber starts to evaporate and
becomes mixture of gas (x)kg and
liquid (1x)kg
(x) leaves early and is ready to
enter 2nd stage compressor at Pi
(1x)kg
liquid
make
its
way
through the 2nd throttle valve into
the evaporator
(1x)kg vapor enters the 1st stage
compressor where it is compressed
to Pi

Condenser

6
Evaporator

At Pi (state 3) (1-x)kg vapor mixes

with (x)kg vapor adiabatically and
becomes 1kg vapor
1kg vapor is compressed in 2nd
stage compressor
1kg vapor enters condenser to be
condensed and becomes 1kg liquid
33

ANALYSIS
Fraction of refrigerant which evaporates in the flash
chamber can be given as follows.
h h

fi

hfg i

Refrigerating Effect, QL= (1 x)(h1 h8)

Total work input, Win

= W12 + W94
= (1 x)(h2 h1) + (h4 h9)

Heat rejected in condenser

QH
= (h4 h5)

34

Coefficient of Performance
COPR

QL
Win

1 x h1 h8
1 x h 2 h1 h4 h9

35

EXAMPLE 4.5

A vapor compression of a two-stage compression

plant uses R-134a and has an evaporator and
condenser pressure of 0.14 and 0.8 MPa respectively.
The refrigerant is saturated liquid on leaving the
condenser. A flash chamber is employed at 0.32 MPa.
Calculate:
i.

The amount of vapor bled off at the flash

chamber
ii. The refrigerating effect per unit mass of
refrigerant in the evaporator
iii. The work done per unit mass of refrigerant in
the compressors.
iv. COPR

36

CASCADE REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

A refrigeration process can be carried out in
stages
We call refrigeration cycles that operate in
series as cascade refrigeration cycles
We will look at a two-stage cascade
refrigeration system
A heat exchanger will serve as an evaporator
for one cycle and a condenser for another

37

QH

6
Condenser

Win

Expansion
Valve

Heat
Exchanger

Compressor

5
8
2
3
Win

Expansion
Valve

Compressor

Evaporator

QL

Cycle Layout of a Two-Stage Cascade System

38

THE PROCESS
The heat exchanger connects cycle A with cycle
B
For cycle A, the heat exchanger acts as
condenser
For cycle B, the heat exchanger acts as the
evaporator
Assumptions
Heat exchanger is insulated
Kinetic & potential energy is negligible

Q
A
B
Same refrigerant is used
in both cycles
A h5 h8
B h2 h3
m
m
So heat leaving condenser in A is equal to heat
A
m
h2 h3
entering absorbed
in B
by evaporator
B
m

h5 h8

39

 Refrigeration Coefficient of Performance for

the system:
COPR

QL
Win

m B h1 h4

m A h6 h5 m h2 h1

40

T-s AND P-h DIAGRAM OF THE CASCADE

REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

7
7

2
8

B
4

41

CHARACTERISTICS OF CASCADE SYSTEM

In a cascade system, no mixing of refrigerant
takes place in the heat exchanger,
so no mixing of refrigerant between cycles,
so different refrigerants can be used
Using a cascade system
Increases the refrigeration capacity
Decreases compressor work
So COPR increases
In practice the working fluid of the lower cycle
will be at a higher pressure and temperature in
the heat exchanger for effective heat transfer

42

EXAMPLE 4.6

A two stage cascade refrigeration system operates

between pressure limits of 0.8 MPa and 0.14 MPa.
Each stage operates on an ideal vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle with R-134a as working fluid.
Heat rejection from lower cycle to the upper cycle
takes place in an adiabatic counterflow heat
exchanger where both streams enter at about 0.32
MPa. If mass flow rate of refrigerant through the
upper cycle is 0.05 kg/s. Determine
i. Mass flow rate through lower cycle
ii. Rate of heat removal from refrigerated space
iii. Power input of compressor
iv. COPR

43

ABSORPTION & GAS REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

Absorption Refrigeration System
Introduced because:
saves energy
uses environmental friendly refrigerant
Types of absorption refrigeration systems
Ammonia-Water
Water-Lithium bromide
The system is similar to a vapor-compression
system except that the compressor is replaced
by an absorption system
Refrigerant is absorbed by a transport medium
through the absorbing system

44

SYSTEM LAYOUT OF AN AMMONIA-WATER

ABSORPTION SYSTEM
QH
Condenser

NH3

Generator

Rectifier

QGenerator

NH3 + H2O

H2O

Expansion
Valve
Expansion
Valve
Pump

Evaporator

NH3

Note:
An identical
layout is used
for the waterammonia
absorption
system

Win, Pump

Absorber
NH3 + H2O

QL
Cooling water

Absorption system

45

PROCESS IN THE ABSORPTION SYSTEM

Take an Ammonia-Water system as an example.
Here, Ammonia is the refrigerant and water is
the absorber.
In the case of water-lithium bromide system,
water is the refrigerant and lithium bromide is
the absorber.
NH3 from evaporator enters the absorber. It
reacts with cooling water and releases heat to
form NH3 + H2O solution
The NH3 + H2O is pumped to generator. Heat is
transferred to NH3 + H2O to vaporize it
Then it is passed to the rectifier to separate NH3
and H2O
High pressure NH3 in rectifier goes to condenser
H2O & the rest of NH3 is passed through a
regenerator. It transfers heat to the solution rich
with NH3 that is on its way to the generator
46

ADVANTAGE & DISADVANTAGE

Advantage
Pump work is relatively small compared to
the heat supplied to the generator
Disadvantage
Rather complex
Coefficient of performance
COPR

QL
Qgenerator W pump

because W pump is small

COPR

QL
Qgenerator

47