What is it?

Ecology

Ecology
Hierarchy of Organization
- Individual
- Population - # of individuals in given area
- Community all biota in an area
- Ecosystem all biota & abiotic factors
- Landscape multiple ecosystems over
large area
- Biosphere all life on Earth

Ecology
Autecology: study interrelations of
individuals with environment
Synecology: study of communities

Basic Scientific Principles

Law of Conservation of Matter
Matter cannot be created nor destroyed,
rather it can only be transformed
1st Law of Thermodynamics (Energy)
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed,
rather it can only be converted in form

Basic Scientific Principles

2nd Law of Thermodynamics
When converting energy, always lose
some energy as heat

Major Ecosystem Processes

1) Energy Flow = energy moves through
system
2) Nutrient Cycling = chemical elements
recycled in system

Energy Flow
Solar energy primary energy source
(fig 3.5, p. 42)
Of incoming solar radiation:
66% absorbed
34% reflected (albedo)

Solar Energy
Of solar radiation absorbed:
- ~22%
water cycle
- nearly all
transform to heat &
radiates
emissivity: relative ability of Earth to
release energy (e.g., radiate heat into
space; link to global warming)

Solar Energy
Tiny amount of solar energy into
photosynthesis (< 0.1%)
photosynthesis (PNS): use solar energy to
convert CO2 & H2O into sugar; by-product
= O2
primary production: all organic matter
resulting from PNS; raw material for other
organisms (gross production vs. net
production)

Energy Flow in Communities

food chain: sequence of organisms linked
by energy & nutrient flow
trophic level: feeding level/position of
organism in food chain

Trophic Levels
Producer: (autotrophs) anchor of chain;
produce all organic matter for other
organisms
Heterotrophs (consumers)
Primary consumer: directly consume
producers = herbivores
Secondary consumer: consume herbivores
Tertiary & Quaternary consumers: consume
secondary & tertiary consumers,
respectively

Trophic Levels
Decomposers: (detritus feeder) consume
and convert dead material for use by
producers

Food Webs
food web: interconnected food chains; all
trophic interactions in community

Human Impacts
Ecosystem simplification: elimination of
species from food webs via human
alterations to land
Example: vertebrate communities in ag.
landscapes

Energy Flow Between Trophic

Levels
Does 100% of energy transfer from 1
trophic level to another?
No. Remember 2nd Law of Thermodyn.
Range 5-20% transference (usually ~10%)
Graphical representation of energy
transference in food web = energy
pyramid

Energy Flow Between Trophic

Levels
Why such low efficiency?
Three Reasons:
1) Escape behavior/protective
coloration/unavailable material
2) Indigestible material
3) Cellular respiration

Bioaccumulation = Biomagnification

Nutrient Cycles
What does the Law of Conservation of
Matter state?
circular flow of chemicals = recycling
Inputs & relationship to energy flow?
Water, Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N),
Phosphorus (P), Sulfur (S)

Carbon Cycle
Carbon = building block of life
Reservoirs = atmosphere, ocean,
organisms
High rate of exchange in/out reserves
Any relation to global warming?

Nitrogen Fixation
Types
1) atmospheric fixation via lightening
or sunlight; NO3 as precipitation (ppt)
2) biological fixation* via soil & water
bacteria (blue-green algae); NH3;
legumes & root nodules
Water Quality & Nitrates
Soil Condition & Fertilizers

Phosphorus Cycle
Water Quality & Phosphorus
Eutrophication: increase in nutrient
content of lakes

Some Ecological Principles

Individual
Law of Tolerance: organisms can
tolerate a range of conditions beyond
which they die
e.g., temperature, nutrients
age-dependent, DNA

Where does habitat fit?

Habitat: home; area having necessary
resources (food, water, cover) and
environmental conditions (temp., ppt) that
allows organism to live & reproduce
Your habitat = ?????
What if habitat is drastically changed or
destroyed?
Move, Adapt, or Die

Properties of Communities
1) Species Richness = # species in a comm.
2) Species Evenness = relative abundance of
different species
3) Species Diversity = richness & evenness
e.g., Four species (A,B,C,D) in 2 different
communities
Comm 1 25A 25B 25C 25D
Comm 2 97A 1B 1C 1D

What Happens in a
Community?

1) Competition: individuals contest over a

resource (food, space, water, mates)
major factor determining structure
http://fr.truveo.com/The-Raccoon-and-Two-House-Pets/id/2429116624

What Happens in a
Community?
Types of Competition
A) Interspecific: competition between
different species, e.g., blue jay & chickadee
compete for sunflower seed at feeder

What Happens in a
Community?
Types of Competition
B) Intraspecific: competition within the same
species, e.g., 2 oryx bobcats compete for
space

Principle of Competitive
Exclusion (Gauses experiments)
Two species which compete for same
resource cannot coexist in same place at
same time
Implications = different locations or
different times
Relates directly to niche concept

Niche Concept
Niche: functional role (occupation) &
position (spatial & temporal) of a species
in its community
Principle of Competitive Exclusion = 2
species cannot occupy the same niche

What Happens in a
Community? (cont.)

2) Predation: one species consumes another

species

Some Ecological Principles

Community
Biological Succession: temporal
sequence of one community replacing
another; predictable
Primary vs. Secondary

Terrestrial Biomes

Biomes - distinguished primarily by their

predominant plants and associated with particular
climates.
Geographic and seasonal variations in temperature and
precipitation are fundamental components.

Soil : Foundation of Terrestrial

Biomes
Soil is a complex
mixture of living and
non-living material.
Classification based
on vertical layering
(soil horizons)
Soil Profile =
snapshot of soil
structure in a constant
state of flux

Soil Horizons
O horizon: Organic Layer freshly fallen
organic material - most superficial layer
A horizon: Mixture of minerals, clay, silt and
sand
B horizon: Clay, humus, and other materials
leached from A horizon - often contains plant
roots
C horizon: Weathered parent material

Tropical Rainforests
Little temperature variation
between months
Organisms add vertical
dimension
Harbor staple foods and
medicines for worlds human
populations - increasingly
exploited

Tropical Dry Forest

Climate more
seasonal than
tropical rainforest
Heavily settled by
humans with
extensive clearing
for agriculture

Tropical Savanna
Climate alternates
wet / dry seasons
Fire dependent

Desert
~ 20% of earths land
surface
Water loss usually
exceeds precipitation
Human intrusion
increasing

Mediterranean Woodland &

Shrubland (Chaparral)
All continents
except Antarctica
Climate cool &
moist in fall,
winter, and spring;
hot & dry in
summer
Fire-resistant
plants due to fire
regime

Temperate Grassland
Periodic droughts
Soils tend extremely
nutrient rich and deep
Dominated by
herbaceous vegetation
Warm season grasses
(tall grass vs. short
grass)
Large roaming
ungulates
Bison vs. cattle

Temperate Forest
Fertile soils
Long growing
seasons dominated
by deciduous
plants
Short growing
seasons dominated
by conifers
Many major human
population centers

Boreal Forest (Taiga)

Northern Hemisphere
~ 11% of earths
land area
Thin, acidic soils low
in fertility
Generally dominated
by evergreen conifers
Historically, low
levels of human
intrusion

Tundra

Covers most of lands

north of Arctic Circle
Climate typically cool
& dry; short summers
Low decomposition rates
Human intrusion
historically low, but
increasing as resources
become scarce
What type of
increased use?

dN
rN
dt

dN
N

rN 1
dt
K

Density-dependent Effects

Who Cares?
Why bother discussing these models?
Metapopulations & Source-sink Populatons
highlight the importance of:
habitat & landscape fragmentation
connectivity between isolated
populations
genetic diversity

Habitat Fragmentation
Process of breaking contiguous unit into
smaller pieces; area & distance
components
Leads to:
< remnant patch size
> edge:interior ratios
> patch isolation
< connectivity
Community & Ecosystem processes
altered

Habitat Fragmentation
First-Order Effects: fragmentation leads
to change in a species abundance and/or
distribution
Higher-Order Effects: fragmentation
indirectly leads to change in a species
abundance and/or distribution via
altered species interactions

Habitat Fragmentation
area-sensitive species: species that
require minimum patch size for daily
life requirements
Edge effects: influence of factors from
outside of a patch

Edge Effects
Habitat surrounding a patch can:
- change abiotic conditions; e.g., temp.
- change biotic interactions, e.g.,
predation
Example of nest predation = edge effect of
approximately 50 m into forest patch

Conservation Implications
All habitats are islands
The internal external threat
Develop & manage reserve as
landscapes/ecosystems linked by
movement of species (metapop.
concepts)
Develop strategies for countering edge
effectspredator control?????