WARRANTS

From The Craft of Research by Booth, Colomb,

and Williams

WARRANTS

Warrant: the logical relationship between a

circumstance and its consequence.
The

Proverb A true statement of a general condition

and result that explains why a specific condition can
lead to a specific result.
When X, then Y.

Extra: Enthymemes and Logic

In

formal logic, all the premises and conclusions

should be laid out
We often dont mention assumed premises in spoken
and written language
Enthymemes: logical formulas missing a step or two
Yet formal writing should include clear logic

EXAMPLE
Russia faces a falling standard of living because
its birthrate is only 1.17 and mens life
expectancy has dropped to about 58 years.
What is the logic?
Reader may not understand if the logic is not
explained.

DIAGRAM OF A WARRANTS LOGIC

General Circumstance

Implies

General Consequence

When a nations labor

force shrinks,

Then

its economic future is

grim.

Specific Circumstance

Let us infer

Specific Consequence

Therefore

Russia faces a falling

standard of living.

Russias birthrate is only

1.17 and mens life
expectancy has dropped
to about 58 years

TESTING THE RELIABILITY OF A

WARRANT
Is the warrant basically true?
Is it prudently limited?
Can your warrant be trumped?
Is your warrant appropriate to the readers
community?
Are your reason and claim good instances of the
General Warrant?

IS YOUR WARRANT BASICALLY

TRUE?
Will readers believe the truth of your warrant?
If not, treat the warrant as a claim that needs its
own reasons and evidence.
Example:

In

the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries,

valuable objects were listed in wills, so when a will
failed to mention such a valuable object, the person
did not own one. (warrant/claim)
Watson (1989) confirmed that to be the case. (reason)
IN a study of 1,356 wills filed in Cumberland County
between 1750 and 1825, he found . . . (evidence)

IS YOUR WARRANT PRUDENTLY

LIMITED?
A warrant might be need to be limited to be
believed.
Example:

In

the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries,

most household objects considered valuable by
their owners were usually listed in wills.
(Problem: most and usually are vague terms)

CAN YOUR WARRANT BE TRUMPED?

Can a competing warrant be used to trump
yours? Why is your warrant better than
alternatives?
Examples:

Out

of sight, out of mind.

Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
When a group wants to express political views, it has
a constitutional right to do so.
When a group does not unanimously agree, its
leaders should not express their own opinion in the
name of the group.

You may need to recognize and respond to

competing warrants.

IS YOUR WARRANT APPROPRIATE

TO YOUR READERS COMMUNITY?
Some fields of research may reject a warrant you
think is obvious:
Example:

Law

Obvious: When a person is wronged, the law should correct

it.
Law: When one ignores legal obligations, even
inadvertently, one must suffer the consequences.
Thus, in law: When elderly home owners forget to pay real
estate taxes, others can buy their houses for back taxes and
evict them.

ARE YOUR REASON AND CLAIM

GOOD INSTANCES OF THE
GENERAL WARRANT?
General Circumstance

Implies

General Consequence

When you arent safe,

Then

You should be able to

protect yourself.

Specific Circumstance

Let us infer

Specific Consequence

If you live alone,

Then

You should buy a gun.

ARE YOUR REASON AND CLAIM

GOOD INSTANCES OF THE
GENERAL WARRANT?
General Circumstance

Implies

General Consequence

When children are

constantly exposed to
images of sadistic
violence,

Then

They are influenced for

the worse.

Specific Circumstance

Let us infer

Specific Consequence

Therefore

TV is a destructive
influence on children.

Violence among children

12-16 is rising faster
than among any other
age group

ARE YOUR REASON AND CLAIM

GOOD INSTANCES OF THE
GENERAL WARRANT?
General Circumstance

Implies

General Consequence

When children are

constantly exposed to
images of sadistic
violence,

Then

They are influenced for

the worse.

Specific Circumstance

Let us infer

Specific Consequence

Therefore

TV is a destructive
influence on children.

TV is a major source of
childrens images of
violence

WHEN TO STATE A WARRANT

Warrants are often not stated because they are
implicitly understood in a research community.
Yet you may need to make the warrant clear
when:

Readers

are outside your field

You use a warrant that is new or contested in your
field
You make a claim that readers will resist because
they just dont want it to be true

It helps to state the warrant before your evidence

and reason.
Stating warrants shows readers courtesy

CHALLENGING OTHERS WARRANTS

It is difficult to challenge warrants that others
hold
Challenging Warrants Based on Experience

Some

may believe a warrant based on their own

experience or on reports theyve heard
To challenge these you must

Challenge the reliability of the experience

Find counter-examples that cannot be dismissed as special
cases

CHALLENGING OTHERS WARRANTS

Challenging Warrants Based on Authority

Some

may say:

When authority A says B, B must be true.

You

may respond:

Authority A does not have complete information on B.

Authority A is not really an authority.
Authority C is a better authority because of E, F, and G.
Authority C says H because of I, J, and K. Thus H is a
reasonable thing to believe is true.

CHALLENGING OTHERS WARRANTS

Challenging Warrants Based on Systems of

Knowledge
Examples:

Mathematics: When we add two odd numbers, we get an

even one.
Law: When we disobey the law, we should be punished.

It

is difficult to challenge such warrants. We must

either challenge the entire system of knowledge or
show that the example does not apply to the warrant.

CHALLENGING OTHERS WARRANTS

Challenging General Cultural Warrants

Examples:

Out of sight, out of mind

An insult demands retaliation
A black cat is bad luck

Warrants

may be challenged through scientific

analysis and reasoning
Cultural warrants tend to change slowly

CHALLENGING METHODOLOGICAL
WARRANTS

Meta-warrants that guide our thinking.

Examples:

Generalization: When every known case of X has quality Y,

then all Xs probably have quality Y. (See one, see them all.)
Analogy: When X is like Y in most respects, then X will be
like Y in other respects. (Like father, like son.)
Sign: When Y regularly occurs before, during or after x, Y is
a sign of X. (Cold hands, warm heart.)

Challenge:

show that the warrant was applied

wrongly or that there are exceptions that invalidate
the warrant.

CHALLENGING OTHERS WARRANTS

Challenging Warrants Based on Articles of Faith

Examples:

We hold these truths self-evident, that all men are created

equal
When a claim is experienced as revealed truth, it must be
true.
When a claim is based on divine teaching, it must be true.

Can

argue that the reasons for the article of faith are

not valid, but may lead to difficulties and tensions.

WARRANTS THAT AVOID THE

QUESTION

Often used in politics:

Example:
Reporter: Senator, do you support measures to cut
greenhouse gases?
Senator: I support all sound ideas aimed at correcting
serious problems.
Meaning: I havent decided if measures to cut greenhouses
gases are sound or if global warming is a serious problem,
but if so, then I will support such measures.
Or: I dont think measures to cut greenhouse gases are
sound, nor is global warming a serious problem, but I dont
want to offend you, so I will answer with a warrant.
Or: I reject the limitations of your question and wish to
express the general policy I use when I make decisions on
individual cases.

TWO KINDS OF ARGUMENTS

Deductive (based on a warrant and reason)

All

men are mortal

Socrates is a man
Therefore Socrates is mortal

Inductive (based on observed or gathered

evidence)
Water

has always quenched my thirst.

Therefore water will most likely quench my thirst in
the future.

Many researchers prefer the second type,

although formulated as claim, reason, evidence,
claim.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Booth, Wayne C., Gregory G. Colomb, and Joseph

M. Williams. The Craft of Research. 3rd ed.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2008.