The Internal Structure

of the Earth

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 This drilling ship samples sediment and rock from the

deep ocean floor. It can only sample materials well
within the upper crust of the earth, however, barely
scratching the surface of the earth's interior Page 2

Deepest hole drilled in the earths continent is in the Kola Peninsula, Russia, at a
depth of 12km
Kola Superdeep hole, Russia
~ 12,262 metres (40,230 ft)

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How do we know that?

Geophysics
Seismology, mainly
By studying arrival times of seismic waves , we can determine the velocity
structure of the earth. It is consistent with a radial organization, except for
the crust, which varies from place to place. The text discusses how
seismology has been used to probe the interior of the earth.
Seismic waves come in several flavors. Among the important ones here are
P (Primary, compressional) and S (Secondary, shear) waves. Only solids can
transmit S-waves. Solids and liquids transmit P waves. We know the earth
has a liquid outer core and a solid inner core because it transmits P-waves
but not S-waves; the solid inner core is from P-wave to S-wave conversions.
The velocity of a seismic wave depends on the density and elastic properties
of the medium through which it travels. Velocities can vary sharply (easy to
detect, usually at a compositional interface) or gradually (hard to detect,
often due to phase changes or a gradual changes in composition).

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How do we know that? : Geophysics

Gravity: by using very sensitive measuring scales, geophysicists
measure the strength of gravity, usually for exploration or missilelobbing. These measurements have shown that most areas have
nearly the same mass below them (roots under mountains and holes
under basins).

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How do we know that?

Magnetics :
Earth, has a magnetic field.
It is a dipole, kind of parallel to the
spin axis.

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How do we know that?

Magnetics :
Measurements on orientation of
magnetic field frozen into volcanic
rocks indicates that the earth's
magnetic field flips from time to
time, which we understand even
less.

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How do we know that?: Geophysics

Moment of Inertia:
The

rate at which the earth wobbles on its axis can be used to

estimate its moment of inertia. The values found indicate that the core
must be very dense.

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How do we know that?

Meteorites :

Analysis of meteorites and various rock samples suggests that the earth
has a bulk composition similar to carbonaceous chondrites, one of the
more commonly found types of meteorites, except that most of the light
elements (carbon, hydrogen) have boiled off. Carbonaceous chondrites
also have composition similar to the sun (based on ratios of heavy
elements).

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How do we know that? Evidences

Heat flow can be measured, and indicates that the continents have
rather high heat flow, trenches and ocean floor have very low heat
flow, and mid-ocean ridges have high heat flow rates that are rather
spotty.

Speculation and Extrapolation are the main tools in most discussions

of earths interior.

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 Evidence from Seismic Waves

Seismic Waves
A vibration that moves through the Earth.

Body waves
Seismic waves that travel through the Earths
interior, spreading outward from a disturbance in
all directions.

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 (A):A seismic wave

moving from a
slower-velocity
layer to a highervelocity layer is
refracted up.
(B): The reverse
occurs when a
wave passes from a
higher-velocity to a
slower-velocity
layer.

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 (A):This illustrates the curved

path of seismic waves
between an explosion and a
recording seismograph van.
The curved path is caused by
increasing seismic velocity
with depth in uniform rock.
(B): This illustrates
increasing seismic velocity
with depth in uniform rock.
The waves curve out in all
directions from a
disturbance.

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Types of Seismic waves

Epicenter

Focus

Fault
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Types of Seismic waves

P waves: (Body Waves) Are

push-pull waves that push
(compress) and pull
(expand) in the direction
that the waves travel.

Travel through solids,

liquids, and gases

Have the greatest velocity

of all seismic waves
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Types of
Seismic waves
S waves: Shake particles
at right angles to the
direction that they travel.

Travel only through solids

Slower velocity than P waves

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Seismic waves

The velocity of both S- and P-waves is determined by

the density and rigidity of the material.
Waves travel faster in denser more rigid material.
Waves are reflected at boundaries where elastic
properties differ.
If the reflected waves reach the surface, they can be
measured by a seismograph.
Wave refraction can also be used to determine
properties of the interior of the Earth.
Waves are refracted (bent) when they pass from a layer with
higher density to a layer with lower density.
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Seismograms

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Seismographs

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Propagation of Seismic Waves Through Earths Interior

Longitudinal waves travel through both
solids and liquids.
Transverse waves travel through
solids only.

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Fig. 17.7

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Crust

Thin, rocky outer layer

Varies in thickness
Crust has P-wave velocities <8 km/sec

Continental crust
- Average thickness 840 km; - Exceeds 70 km in mountainous
regions.
- Made up of rocks rich in aluminium and silica.
- Crust below 15 km is plastic and above it is brittle.
- Average density is about 2.7 g/cm3
- Up to 4 billion years old

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Crust

Thin, rocky outer layer

Oceanic crust
-

averages thickness ~ 7 km.

Made up of rocks rich in and silica.
Average density density around 3.0 g/cc
Oceanic crust is elastic-brittle all the way through.
Younger (180 million years or less) than the continental crust

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Mohorovicic Discontinuity
Contact between Crust & Mantle (The Moho)
This is an area of increased velocity of seismic waves
as the material is denser in the mantle (due to higher
proportion of ferromagnesium materials and the crust is
higher in silicates).

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The Mantle
Mantle has P-wave velocities >8 km/sec
2,870 km thick between the crust
and the core Composition of the
uppermost mantle is the igneous rock
peridotite (changes at greater depths).
Seismic wave velocities increase at
depths of about 400 km and 700 km.
700 km is the boundary between the
upper mantle and the lower mantle.
No earthquakes occur in the lower
mantle.

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The Lithosphere

Lithosphere is solid and includes the crust and the rigid,

outermost part of the mantle.

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The Asthenosphere

Asthenosphere has fast P-waves and slow, attenuated S-waves,

indicating partial melting or plastic state.
It is located below the lithosphere (the crust and upper
mantle), between about 100 and 250 kilometers deep.
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Mechanical Layers
This is based on our observation of density structures, laboratory experiments determining mechanical properties of certain
rocks at various pressure-temperature conditions, and on estimates of the variation of temperature with depth
Lithosphere is solid and includes the crust and the rigid, outermost part of the mantle.
Crust has P-wave velocities <8 km/sec BY DEFINITION (usually 5.5-7.2 km/sec)
Continental crust is granodiorite-like and usually about 35 km thick, going up to 70-100 in collision zones. In areas of
extension, it can be thinner. The lower part of continental crust is plastic.
Oceanic crust is basaltic and usually about 0-7 km thick. At ocean ridges it is thinner. It is less dense than the mantle
when hot (recently-extruded=young) and slightly denser when cold (old). This may be one of the main driving forces
behind plate tectonics.
The strange density situation is due to partial melting of peridotite. Generally, partial melts are more iron-rich than the
source rock: the restite is typically more magnesium-rich. The liquids are less dense than the solids, but as they cool,
they contract and the denser, more easily melted iron-rich product becomes denser. When the overlying solid is denser,
it tends to sink.
The Moho is the boundary between fast rock and slower rock above, and is taken as crust-mantle boundary
Mantle has P-wave velocities >8 km/sec
Uppermost mantle has fast P-waves and S-waves
Asthenosphere has fast P-waves and slow, attenuated S-waves, indicating partial melting or plastic state
Lower mantle has fast P-wave and S-waves, indicating solid behavior.
There are at least two important phase changes in the mantle, one where olivine goes to a denser spinel structure and one
where it goes to an even denser perovskite structure.
Core
Outer Core has lower P-wave speeds than the mantle and results in a shadow zone of P-waves and loss of direct S-waves.
No S-waves indicates definitely liquid behavior.
Inner Core transmits both P and S waves, and is solid.

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 Copyright 2006. M. J. Krech. All rights reserved.

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 http://terravir.com/DepthSeverance.html
http://wikiislam.net/wiki/Earth_Made_o
f_Seven_Layers
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjec
ts/astronomy/planets/earth/Inside.shtml

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