OVER VOLTAGES IN ELECTRICAL

POWER SYSTEMS
UNIT I
Mr. S. VINOD
LECTURER
EEE DEPARTMENT

Causes of over voltages and its effect on power

system
Lightning
switching surges
temporary over voltages

protection against over voltages.

INTRODUCTION

The examination of over voltages on the power system includes a study of

their
Magnitudes
Shapes
durations
frequency of occurrence
study should be performed not only at the point where an over voltage
originates but also at all other points along the transmission network to which
the surges may travel.
Lightning rapidly heats the air in its immediate vicinity to about 20,000 C
(36,000 F), about three times the temperature of the surface of the Sun. This
compresses the surrounding clear air and creates a supersonic shock wave
which decays to an acoustic wave that is heard as thunder Lightning rapidly
heats the air in its immediate vicinity to about 20,000 C (36,000 F)
about three times the temperature of the surface of the Sun. This compresses
the surrounding clear air and creates a supersonic shock wave which decays
to an acoustic wave that is heard as thunder

TYPE OF OVER VOLTAGE

The voltage stresses on transmission network insulation
are found to have a variety of origins. In normal operation
AC (or DC) voltages do not stress the insulation severely,
However, they remain the initial factor that determines its
dimensions. Over voltages stressing a power system can
generally be classified into two main types:
1. External over voltages: generated by atmospheric
disturbances. Of these disturbances, lightning is the most
common and the most severe.
2. Internal over voltages: generated by changes in the
operating conditions of the network. Internal over voltages
can be divided into (a) switching over voltages and (b)
temporary over voltages.

LIGHTING PHENOMENON

Lightning phenomenon is a peak discharge in which charge accumulated

in the clouds discharges into a neighboring cloud or in the ground,
between clouds and cloud to ground which is very large.

Some of the facts of clouds formation during thunder storms and lightning.

1.

Upper region of the cloud is positive charge and the lower region of the
cloud are negatively charge except the local region near the base.

2.

Height of the cloud from ground is about 200 to 10,000m and the charge
center at the distance of 300 to 20000m.

3.

Charge inside the cloud is 1 to 100C.

4.

Energy associate with the cloud is 250kWh

Theory of Charge formation

Simpsons theory.
Renold and Mason
theory.

 Below region A : Air current travel above 800cm/sec and no

rain drops fall through.
In region A: Air velocity is high enough to break the falling
rain drops causing a +ve charge in the air. As the spray blown
upwards, but as the velocity of air decreases.
Region B : Above region A becomes negatively charged by air
current.
Region C : The temperature is low and only ice crystal exits.
The impact of air on these crystals make them negatively
charge and air is positively charge.

RENOLD AND MASON THEORY

The explanation presented by Simpson theory was not
satisfactory.
Thunder clouds are developed at heights of 1 to 2 kms above
the ground level and may extend 12 to 14 km above the ground.
For thunder clouds and charge formation air current, moisture
and specific temperature are required.
Air current controlled by the temperature gradient move
upwards carrying moisture and water droplets.
The temperature is 0 degree about 4km from ground.
-50 about 12km from ground.
Water droplets in the thunder clouds are blown up in the air
currents and gets super cooled over a range of height and
temperature.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHTNING

Static Electricity
Ultra-High Voltage Generation
The Discharge
Surface Dispersion
Basic Laws of Electricity

LIGHTNING OVER VOLTAGE

According to theories generally accepted, lightning is produced in an attempt

by nature to maintain a dynamic balance between ionosphere and the earth

During thunderstorms, positive and negative charges are separated by the

movements of air currents forming ice crystals in the upper layer of a cloud
and rain in the lower part. The cloud becomes negatively charged and has a
larger layer of positive charge at its top. As the separation of charge proceeds
in the cloud, the potential difference between the concentrations of charges
increases and the vertical electric field along the cloud also increases.

The total potential difference between the two main charge centers may vary
from 1500V to 1000 MV.

Only a part of the total charge-several hundred coulombs-is released to earth

by lightning; the rest is consumed in inter cloud discharges. The height of the
thundercloud dipole above earth may reach 5 km

ANATOMY OF A LIGHTNING STROKE

Electrons begin
zigzagging
downward in a
forked pattern.
This is the
stepped leader.

As the stepped leader

nears the ground, it
draws a streamer of
positive charge upward.

As the leader and

streamer come together,
a powerful electrical
current begins flowing.

Current begins
the return stroke,
an intense wave
of positive
charge traveling
upward about
60,000 miles per
second.

LIGHTNING VOLTAGE SURGES

The most severe lightning stroke is that which strikes a phase conductor on
the transmission line as it produces the highest over voltage for a given stroke
current. The lightning stroke injects its current into a termination impedance
Z, which in this case is half the line surge impedance Zo since the current will
flow in both directions. Therefore, the voltage surge magnitude at the striking
point is
The lightning current magnitude is rarely less than 10 kA and thus, for a
typical overhead line surge impedance Zo of 300, the lightning surge voltage
will probably have a magnitude in excess of 1500 kV.
The shapes and magnitudes of lightning surge waves get modified by their
reflections at points of discontinuity as they travel along transmission lines

CAUSES OF OVER VOLTAGES DUE TO

LIGHTNING STRIKES

A transient over voltage is a voltage peak with a maximum duration of

less than one millisecond.
Over voltages due to direct lightning strikes
Over voltages due to the indirect effects of lightning strikes

OVER VOLTAGES DUE TO DIRECT

LIGHTNING STRIKES
These can take two forms:
When lightning strikes a lightning conductor or the roof of a building which is
earthed, the lightning current is dissipated into the ground. The impedance of the
ground and the current flowing through it create large difference of potential: this
is the over voltage. This over voltage then propagates throughout the building via
the cables, damaging equipment along the way.
When lightning strikes an overhead low voltage line, the latter conducts high
currents which penetrate into the building creating large overvoltages. The damage
caused by this type of over voltage is usually spectacular (e.g. fire in the electrical
switchboard causing the destruction of buildings and industrial equipment) and
results in explosions.

Over Voltages Due To The Indirect Effects Of

Lightning Strikes
The over voltages previously mentioned are also found when lightning strikes in
the vicinity of a building, due to the increase in potential of the ground at the
point of impact. The electromagnetic fields created by the lightning current
generate inductive and capacitive coupling, leading to other over voltages.
Within a radius up to several kilometers, the electromagnetic field caused by
lightning in clouds can also create sudden increases in voltage.
Although less spectacular than in the previous case, irreparable damage is also
caused to so called sensitive equipment such as fax machines, computer power
supplies and communication systems.
Increase in ground potential, Electrostatic field, Magnetic field

Representation of the various disturbances on

electrical networks

Diagram of an installation protected against lightning

and its indirect effects

PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTION

Lightning Protection System

Air Terminal
Discharge Conductor
Lightning Arresters

1. Rod arrester
2.Horn gap arrester
3. Multigap arrester
4. Expulsion type lightning arrester
5. Valve type lightning arrester

Counterpoise

AIR TERMINAL
Also known as a Lightning Rod
Traditionally inch copper rod
With sharpened point
Six inches above object to be protected

Discharge Conductor
Not less than #4 AWG, SWG, BWG- 0.23in
Uninsulated stranded copper wire

Straight from Air Terminal to Ground

No sharp bends (bend radius of 1 foot)
Should be run outside of hull

Electrical wiring should be at right angles

#4

Lightning Arresters

The earthing screen and ground wires can well

protect the electrical system against direct
lightning strokes but they fail to provide
protection against traveling waves.
The lightning arresters or surge diverters
provide protection against such surges.
A lightning arrester or a surge diverter is a
protective device, which conducts the high
voltage surges on the power system to the
ground.
surge diverter consists of a spark gap in series
with a non-linear resistor.
One end of the diverter is connected to the
terminal of the equipment to be protected and
the other end is effectively grounded.
The length of the gap is so set that normal
voltage is not enough to cause an arc but a
dangerously high voltage will break down the
air insulation and form an arc.

ROD GAP ARRESTER

It is a very simple type of diverter and

consists of two 1.5 cm rods, which are
bent at right angles with a gap in
between.
One rod is connected to the line
circuit and the other rod is connected
to earth
The distance between gap and
insulator must not be less than one
third of the gap length so that the arc
may not reach the insulator and
damage it.
Under normal operating conditions,
the gap remains non-conducting. On
the occurrence of a high voltage surge
on the line, the gap sparks over and
the surge current is conducted to earth

LIMITATIONS OF ROD GAP ARRESTER

(i)After the surge is over, the arc in the gap is maintained
by the normal supply voltage, leading to short-circuit on
the system.
(ii) The rods may melt or get damaged due to excessive
heat produced by the arc.
(iii) The climatic conditions (e.g. rain, humidity,
temperature etc.) affect the performance of rod gap arrester.
(iv) The polarity of the f the surge also affects the
performance of this arrester.
Due to the above limitations, the rod gap arrester is only used
as a back-up protection in case of main arresters.

HORN GAP ARRESTER

It consists of a horn shaped metal rods A and B

separated by a small air gap.
The horns are so constructed that distance
between them gradually increases towards the top.
The horns are mounted on porcelain insulators.
One end of horn is connected to the line through a
resistance and while the other end is effectively
grounded.
The resistance R helps in limiting the follow
current to a small value.
The gap between the horns is so adjusted that
normal supply voltage is not enough to cause an
arc across the gap.
Under normal conditions, the gap is nonconducting.
On the occurrence of an over voltage, spark-over
takes place across the small gap G.
The heated air around the arc and the magnetic
effect of the arc cause the arc to travel up the gap.
The arc moves progressively into positions 1,2
and 3. At some position of the arc (position 3), the
distance may be too great for the voltage to
maintain the arc; consequently, the arc is
extinguished. The excess charge on the line is
thus conducted through the arrester to the ground.

MULTIGAP ARRESTER

It consists of a series of metallic (generally alloy of zinc) cylinders insulated from one
another and separated by small intervals of air gaps.
The first cylinder (i.e. A) in the series is connected to the line and the others to the
ground through a series resistance.
The series resistance limits the power arc. By the inclusion of series resistance, the
degree of protection against traveling waves is reduced.
In order to overcome this difficulty, some of the gaps (B to C) are shunted by
resistance.
Under normal conditions, the point B is at earth potential and the normal supply voltage
is unable to break down the series gaps.
On the occurrence an over voltage, the breakdown of series gaps A to B occurs.
The heavy current after breakdown will choose the straight through path to earth via
the shunted gaps B and C, instead of the alternative path through the shunt resistance.

EXPULSION TYPE LIGHTNING ARRESTER

EXPULSION TYPE LIGHTNING ARRESTER

It essentially consists of a rod gap AA in series with a second gap enclosed

within the fiber tube.
The gap in the fiber tube is formed by two electrodes. The upper electrode
is connected to rod gap and the lower electrode to the earth.
One expulsion arrester is placed under each line conductor.
On the occurrence of an over voltage on the line, the series gap AA
spanned and an arc is stuck between the electrodes in the tube.
The heat of the arc vaporizes some of the fiber of tube walls resulting in
the production of neutral gas. In an extremely short time, the gas builds up
high pressure and is expelled through the lower electrode, which is hollow.
As the gas leaves the tube violently it carries away ionized air around the
arc. This de ionizing effect is generally so strong that the arc goes out at a
current zero and will not be re-established

EXPULSION TYPE LIGHTNING ARRESTER

Advantages:
(i) They are not very expensive.
(ii) They are improved form of rod gap arresters as they block the
flow of power frequency follow currents
(iii) They can be easily installed.
Limitations:
(i) An expulsion type arrester can perform only limited number of
operations as during each operation some of the fiber material is
used up.
(iii) This type of arrester cannot be mounted on enclosed equipment
due to discharge of gases during operation.

COUNTERPOISE

A counterpoise is galvanized steel wire run in parallel or radial or a

combination of the two, with respect to the overhead line.
The corners of the squares indicate the location of the tower legs. The
lightning stroke as is incident on the tower, discharges to the ground
through the tower and then through the counterpoises.
the leakage resistance of the counterpoise should always be smaller than
the surge impedance otherwise, positive reflections of the surge will take
place and hence instead of lowering the potential of the tower (by the use
of counterpoise) is will be raised.
The leakage resistance of the counterpoise depends upon the surface area,
i.e., whether we have one long continuous counterpoise say 1000 m or
four smaller counterpoises of 250 m each, as far as the leakage resistance
is concerned it is same.

COUNTERPOISE

Over voltage Due To Switching Surges

when the transmission voltages were about 220 kV and below, over voltages
due to lightning were of very high order and over voltages generated inside
the system were not of much consequence.
with increase in transmission voltages, (400 kV and above) the over voltages
generated inside the system reached the same order of magnitude as those of
lightning over voltages, or higher.
Over voltages thus generated last for longer durations and therefore are
severe and more dangerous to the system.
Insulation co-ordination, where the protective level of any particular kind of
surge diverter is proportional to the maximum voltage, the insulation level
and the cost of the equipment depends on the magnitudes of these over
voltages.
Over voltages that determine the insulation level of the lines and other
equipment and consequently, they also determine their dimensions and costs.

Origin of Switching Surges

The making and breaking of electric circuits with switchgear

may result in abnormal over voltages in power systems
having large inductances and capacitances.
The over voltages may go as high as six times the normal
power frequency voltage.

switching surges are quite different and may have origin from any of the
following sources.
1.
De-energizing of transmission lines, cables, shunt capacitor, banks, etc.
2.
Disconnection of unloaded transformers, reactors, etc.
3.
Energization or reclosing of lines and reactive loads,
4.
Sudden switching off of loads.
5.
Short circuits and fault clearances.
6.
Resonance phenomenon like ferro-resonance, arcing grounds, etc.

over voltages due to Switching Surges

are calculated By
a) mathematical modeling of a system using digital computers
b) scale modeling using transient network analysers
c) by conducting field tests to determine the expected maximum
amplitude of the over voltages and their duration at different
points on the line.
The main factors that are investigated in the above studies are
(i) the effect of line parameters, series capacitors and shunt reactors on the
magnitude and duration of the transients
(ii) the damping factors needed to reduce the magnitude of over voltages
(iii) the effect of single pole closing, restriking and switching with series
resistors or circuit breakers on the over voltages, and
(iv) the lightning arrester spark over characteristics.

CONTACT CLOSING
. The simple closing of
switch or of a circuit
breaker can produce
significant over voltage in
electric system.
The transformer in the
line
represented
as
leakage inductance, while
the cable is represented as
capacitance

The circuit performance after switching may be expressed by the following

differential equation:
(1)
The supply voltage vs(t) beyond the switching instant is given by
(2)
The expression for the voltage across the line capacitance takes the form 1 and
2
(3)

MEASURES TO REDUCE THE OVER

VOLTAGES
(a) Energization of transmission lines in one or more steps
by inserting resistance and withdrawing them afterwards,
(b) phase controlled closing of circuit breakers,
(c) drainage of trapped charges before reclosing,
(4) use of shunt reactors, and
(e) limiting switching surges by suitable surge diverters.

Resistor Switching
It is done by initially applying the supply voltage to the line through a
resistor. After a suitable period of time, normally between one third and
one-half of a cycle, the preinserted resistor is short circuited, allowing
the full supply voltage to be applied to the line.
By the end of the preinsertion period, the magnitude of the Energization
surge is usually much reduced by the effect of system damping
The initial amplitude of the energization surge when a preinsertion
resistor of value R is used will be only Zo/(R + Zo) of that reached in
the absence of the resistor, where Zo is the surge impedance of the line.
When the resistor is shorted at the end of the preinsertion period,
another surge will develop. If R is too small, control of the first surge
becomes ineffective; if it is too large, the second surge becomes
dangerous. An optimal value of R would normally be a fraction of Zo,
and depends on transmission-line length.

Phase Controlled Switching

The amplitude of the energization surge depends on the
switching phase angle T.
By properly timing of the closing of the circuit breaker
poles, the resulting switching over voltage can be greatly
reduced. Phase-controlled switching should be carried out
successively for the three poles to accomplish a reduction
in the initial voltages on all three phases.
This is extremely difficult with conventional circuit
breakers but is quite possible with solid-state circuit
breakers,

USE OF SHUNT REACTORS

Shunt reactors are used on many high-voltage transmission
lines as a means of shunt compensation to improve the
performance of the line.
which would otherwise draw large capacitive currents from the
supply. They have the additional advantage of reducing
energization surge magnitudes.
This is accomplished mainly by the reduction in temporary
over voltages.

DRAINAGE OF TRAPPED CHARGES

BEFORE RECLOSING
Charges are trapped on the capacitance to ground of transmission
lines after their sudden reenergization.
If the line is reenergized soon after, usually by means of
automatic reclosures, these charges may cause an increase in the
resulting surge.

In practice, trapped charges may be partially drained

through the switching resistors incorporated in circuit
breakers, as mentioned earlier.
Magnetic-type potential transformers also drain trapped
charges via a low-frequency oscillation which is highly
damped by the effect of magnetic saturation.

SURGE ARRESTER

A protective device connected between a conductor of an electrical system

and ground to limit the magnitude of transient over voltages on equipment.

The valve arrester consists of disks of zinc oxide material that exhibit low
resistance at high voltage and high resistance at low voltage.

By selecting an appropriate configuration of disk material, the arrester will

conduct a low current of a few mA at normal system voltage. During
conditions of lightning or switching surge over voltages, the surge current is
limited by the circuit; and for the magnitudes of current that can be delivered
to the arrester location, the resulting voltage will be limited to controlled
values, and to safe levels as well.

A typical surge arrester consists of disks of Zinc oxide material sized in

cross-sectional area to provide desired energy discharge capability, and in
axial length proportional to the voltage capability.

The disks are then placed in porcelain enclosures to provide physical support
and heat removal, and sealed for isolation from contamination in the
electrical environment

Temporary over voltages

Temporary over voltages (i.e., sustained over voltages) differ
from transient switching over voltages in that they last for
longer durations, typically from a few cycles to a few seconds.
They take the form of undamped or slightly damped oscillations
at a frequency equal or close to the power frequency.
Some of the most important events leading to the generation of
temporary over voltages are

Load rejection
Ferranti effect
ground fault
Harmonic over voltage due to magnetic saturation

LOAD REJECTION

When a transmission line or a large

inductive load that is fed from a power
station is suddenly switched off, the
generator will speed up and the busbar
voltage will rise
The amplitude of the over voltage can be
evaluated as

E is the voltage behind the transient

reactance
Xs the transient reactance of the
generator in series with the transformer
reactance
Xc the equivalent capacitive input
reactance of the system

Ferranti effect
The Ferranti effect of an uncompensated transmission line is
given by
where Vr and Vs are the receiving-end and sending-end voltages,
respectively, and l is the line length (km). 0 is the phase shift
constant of the line per unit length.
It is equal to the imaginary part of ZX, where Z and Y are the
impedance and admittance of the line per unit length.
For a lossless line , = LC where L and C are the inductance
and capacitance of the line per unit length.
0 has a value of about 60 per 100 km at normalpower frequency

GROUND FAULT
A single line-to-ground fault will cause the voltages to
ground of the healthy phases to rise.
In the case of a line-to-ground fault, systems with neutrals
isolated or grounded through a high impedance may
develop overvoltages on healthy phases higher than normal
line-to-line voltages.

Solidly grounded systems, on the other hand, will only

permit phase-to-ground over voltages well below the lineto-line value.

Harmonic over voltage due to magnetic saturation

Harmonic oscillations in power systems are initiated by
system nonlinearities whose primary source is that of the
saturated magnetizing characteristics of transformers and
shunt reactors.
The magnetizing current of these components increases
rapidly and contains a high percentage of harmonics for
voltages above the rated voltage.
Therefore, saturated transformers inject large harmonic
currents into the system.

PART A (2 marks)
1. What are the causes of power frequency
over voltages?
2. What are the causes of over voltages in
power system?
3. What are the different types of fault that
may occur on power lines?
4. What are harmful effects of lightning?
5. Name the sources of switching surges?
6. What is voltage surge? Draw a typical
lightning voltage surge.

PART B (16 marks)

1. Explain the selection of surge arresters for E.H.V. system.

Explain the V-I Characteristics of typical surge diverters.
2. What are the methods used to control of over voltages due
to switching? Explain briefly.
3. What are the causes for power frequency over voltage?
How they are controlled in power systems?
4. What are the causes for switching over voltage? How they
are controlled in power systems?
5. What are the different methods employed for lightning
protection of overhead lines?
6. Explain the characteristics of switching surges with typical
wave shapes clearly.
7. Give the mathematical model of lightning discharges and
explain them.
8. With neat sketches, describe the two types of lightning
strokes.