WATER TECHNOLOGY

DISTRIBUTION OF
WATER
ON
EARTH SURFACE

WATER DISTRIBUTION

OCEAN
WATER

ICE CAP
AND
GLACIERS

FRESH
WATER

GROUND
WATER

97.23%

2.14%

.01%

.61%

OCEAN WATER
ICE CAPS AND
GLACIERS
FRESH WATER
OTHERS
GROUND WATER

Sources of water
1. Rain Water
2. Ground Water
3. Surface Water

Main Sources

Rain Water:
caused due to evap. of surface
water & subsequent preciptation.
Most purest form
Dissolves Impurities (SPM, CO2,
SO2, NO2) from atmosphere
Can be stored in underground
reservoir tanks

Ground Water:
Largest available source of fresh
water.
Form of rain water falling on earth.
Generally pure because it undergoes
natural filtration during the
percolation through soil pores.
Less likely to be contaminated by
BACTERIA but contains dissolved
salts.
To obtain in large quantity tube wells

Surface Water:
The water that flows over the surface of earth &
is Directly available for use.

It includes

1.River water
2.Lake water
3.Sea water
8

SPECIFICATION OF WATER FOR DIFFERENT US

Boilers
Paper Industry
Textile Industry
Sugar Industry
Laundry
Dyeing
Cooking

Boilers:
Water used in boilers should
be free from hardness because
hard water causes sludge and
scale formation which prevent
efficient heat transfer.
Dissolved solids may cause
caustic embrittlement .
(material of boiler becomes
brittle due to accumulation of
caustic substances)
10

Paper Industry:

Should be free from silica and

hardness.
water increases ash content.
Fe & Mn can affect brightness &
color of the paper.
Water should be free from
alkalinity as alkaline water
consume more alum and

11

Textile Industry:
Should be free from hardness as
hard water precipitates basic
dyes and decreases the solubility
of acidic dyes.
Presence of Fe, Mn salts causes
uneven dyeing.
Should be free from turbidity,
colour imparting impurities and
organic matter.

12

Sugar Industry:
Should be free from sulphates,
carbonates and nitrates otherwise
crystallization and refining of sugar
becomes difficult and sugar
obtained is deliquescent (absorb
moisture from air).
Laundries:
Hard water increases consumption
of soaps.
Cooking:
Hard water increases fuel

13

IMPURITIES IN HARD WATER

Dissolved
Impurities

Suspended
Colloidal
Microorganism

14

Dissolved Impurities
a) Salts:
)Carbonates, Bicarbonates, Sulphates and
chlorides of Ca, Mg, Fe, Na, K.
b) Gases: CO2, O2, N2, H2S.
Suspended impurities
Inorganic-Clay, sand.
Organic- Vegetable, animal matter,
phytoplanktons and zooplanktons.
Colloidal Impurities: Products from organic
waste, finely divided silica and clay etc.
Microorganisms: Bacteria, Fungi, Algae etc.

15

HARDNESS OF WATER
It is the soap consuming capacity of water sample.
It is the property of water which prevents the
lathering of soap.
It is due to the presence of salts of Ca and Mg and
other heavy metal ions like Al3+ , Fe3+ , Mn2+ in water.
Hard water with soap produce white precipitates.

Types of Water

Hard Water

Soft Water

 The boiling point of water is elevated due the

presence of dissolved hardness producing
salts. So, more fuel and time consumed.

Temporary Hardness (Carbonate Hardness)

Due to the presence of bicarbonates of Ca & Mg.
It can be removed by boiling.
On boiling soluble bicarbonates of Ca & Mg converts to
insoluble precipitates of carbonates or hydroxides, which
can be removed by filtration
Heat
Ca(HCO3)2
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
Heat
Mg(HCO3)2
Mg(OH)2 + 2CO2

Permanent Hardness (Non-carbonate Hardness)

Due to the presence of sulphates and chlorides of Ca & Mg.
It cannot be removed by simple boiling.
This can be treated chemically.

Degree of Hardness
Here CaCO3 is used as reference standard i.e. hardness
of different samples of varying composition is
expressed in terms of equivalents of CaCO3 .
Reason for using CaCO3 as a reference standard:a) It is the most insoluble salt that can be precipitated
in water treatment.
b) Molecular weight of CaCO3 is 100 so calculations
becomes easy.

Equivalents of CaCO3

Mass of
substance
producing
hardness in
mg/l or ppm

Mol. Wt of CaCO3

Mol. Wt. of
hardness
producing
substance

Units for Hardness

1.
2.
3.
4.

Parts per million (ppm)

Milligram per litre (mg/l)
Degree French ( Fr)
Degree Clark ( Cl)

ppm:- ppm is the parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present per 106
parts of water.
i.e. 1ppm = 1part CaCO3 equivalent hardness in 106 parts of water.

Milligrams per litre (mg/l) :- It is the no. of milligrams of CaCO3

equivalent hardness present per litre of water.
1mg/l = 1mg of CaCO3 equivalent hardness in 1000 ml of water.
Also
1mg/l = 1ppm

Degree French ( Fr) :- It is the parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present per
105 parts of water.
i.e. 1 Fr = 1part CaCO3 equivalent hardness in 10 5 parts of water.

Degree Clark ( Cl) :- It is the parts of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present per
70000 parts of water.
OR
In english system it is expressed in terms of grains of CaCO 3 equivalent
hardness present per gallon (10 lb) of water.
i.e. 1 ( Cl) = 1part CaCO3 equivalent hardness in 70000 parts of water.
OR
1 grain of CaCO3 equivalent hardness present per gallon of water.
1ppm = 0.1 ( Fr) = 0.07 ( Cl) =1 mg/l

BOILER FEED WATER

Boiler is a device used for generation of steam, which
consist of two main parts:1. Furnace:- Provides heat by burning of fuel.
2. Boiler Proper:- Here heat changes water into steam.
and this heat is circulated out of the boiler for using
in various applications for example- for running a
number of machineries.

Specification for boiler feed water

1.
2.
3.
4.

It should be free from soluble salts of Ca & Mg.

It should not contain nitrates and organic matters.
Its hardness should be below 0.2 ppm.
Its caustic alkalinity should lie in b/w 0.15 and 0.45
ppm.
5. Its soda alkalinity should be 0.45 1.00 ppm.

EXTERNAL TREATMENT
It means treatment of hard water before its entry into the
boiler.
This treatment prevents boiler problems arising from hard
water.
These methods are used for the removal of permanent
hardness.

There are three methods

Lime-Soda Process:
The basic principle of this process is to chemically convert all
the soluble hardness causing impurities into insoluble
precipitates which may be removed easily by filtration.
The soluble calcium
chemically converted
calculated amount of
CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2
filtered off.

and magnesium salts in water are

into insoluble compounds, by adding
Lime (Ca(OH)2) and Soda (Na2CO3)
so precipitated, these precipitates are

 The amount of Ca(OH)2 required is equivalent to the temporary hardness

plus the magnesium permanent hardness.
The amount of Na2CO3 required is equivalent to the permanent hardness
of Ca and Mg.
Reaction occurring during the process:Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2
Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2

2CaCO3 + 2H2O
2CaCO3 + Mg(OH)2 + 2H2O

MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2
CaCl2 + Na2CO3

CaCl2 + Mg(OH)2
CaCO3 + 2NaCl

MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2
CaSO4 + Na2CO3

CaSO4 + Mg(OH)2
CaCO3 + Na2SO4

Lime soda process mainly two types,

they are
Cold Lime-soda process
Hot Lime-soda process.

COLD LIME SODA PROCESS

In this method, calculated quantity of chemical
like lime and soda are mixed with water at
room temperature.
At room temperature, the precipitates formed
are finely divided, so they do not settle down
easily and cannot be filtered easily.
Consequently, it is essential to add small
amounts of coagulants like alum, aluminum
sulphate, sodium aluminate, etc.

Which hydrolyze to flocculent, gelatinous precipitate of

aluminum hydroxide, and entraps fine precipitates. Use of
sodium aluminate as coagulant also helps the removal of silica
as well as oil, if present in water. Cold L-S process provides
water, containing a residual hardness of 50 to 60 ppm.

NaAlO2 + 2H2O
Al2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2

NaOH + Al(OH)3
2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4+ 6CO2

COLD-LIME SODA PROCESS

METHOD OF TREATMENT:
Raw water and calculated quantities of
chemicals (Lime + soda + Coagulants) are fed
from the top into the inner vertical circular
chamber, fitted with a vertical rotating shaft
carrying a number of paddles.
As the raw water and chemicals flow down,
there is a vigorous stirring and continuous
mixing, whereby softening of water takes place.
The softened water comes into the outer coaxial chamber, where it rises upwards.

 The heavy sludge or precipitates settles down the outer chamber

by the time the softened water reaches up.
The softened water then passes through a filtering media this is
usually made of wood fibres to ensure complete removal of
sludge.
Filtered soft water finally flows out continuously through the
outlet at the top.
Sludge settling at the bottom of the outer chamber is drawn of
occasionally.
Cold lime-soda process produces water of residual hardness
of 50 to 60 ppm.

HOT LIME-SODA PROCESS

Here water is treated with chemicals at a temperature 94 100 C
Hot lime-soda plant consists essentially of
three parts: A Reaction tank in which raw water, chemicals and steam are
thoroughly mixed.
A Conical sedimentation vessel in which sludge settles down,
and
A sand filter which ensures completes removal of sludge from
the softened water.

 The reaction proceeds faster.

The softening capacity of hot process is increased to many fold.
The precipitate and sludge formed settle down rapidly and
hence, no coagulants are needed.
Much of the dissolved gases such as CO2 and air driven out of
the water.
Viscosity of softened water is lower, so filtration of water
becomes much easier. This in-turn increases the filteration
capacity of filters.
Hot lime-soda process produces water of comparatively lower
residual hardness of 15 to 30 ppm.

HOT LIME-SODA PROCESS

ZEOLITE PROCESS
Zeolites are a group of
Hydrated crystalline aluminosilicates[Na2O . Al2O3 xSiO2
yH2O] Found in certain volcanic rocks.
Tetrahydrally coordinated aluminium and silicon atoms form
AlO4 and SiO4 tetrahedral groups.

Inter-connected with each other and form cage like structures.

These cages are connected with each other forming a
framework with many cavities and channels.

Zeolites are mainly 2 types

Natural zeolites
Synthetic Zeolites
Natural zeolites
Natural zeolites are non-porous,
eg. Natrolite- Na2O.Al2O3.4SiO2.H2O

Synthetic Zeolites
Synthetic Zeolites are porous and possess gel
structure. Sodium zeolites are generally used for
softening of water and are simply represented as
Na2Z, where Z stands for insoluble zeolite.
These can be prepared by heating together
sod. Carbonate (Na2CO3 ), alumina (Al2O3)
and silica (SiO2)
Synthetic zeolites have higher ion
exchange capacity than Natural Zeolites

Process of water treatment

Hard water is passed at a specific rate
through a bed of zeolite in a cylindrical
unit.
As hard water percolates through zeolite
bed, the hardness producing ions i.e.
Ca2+, Mg2+ are exchanged with Na+ ions
of zeolite

Removal of Ca2+, Mg2+ ions from hard

water

Regeneration of Zeolite bed

After some time, the Zeolite is completely converted
into calcium and magnesium zeolites and it ceases
to soften water, i.e., it gets exhausted. At this stage,
the supply of hard water is stopped and the
exhausted zeolite is reclaimed by treating the bed
with a Brine solution (10% NaCl).
CaZ + 2NaCl
Na2Z + CaCl2
MgZ + 2NaCl
Na2Z + MgCl2

Advantages of Zeolite Process

1. Hardness of water is removed almost completely
and softened water of about 10 ppm is obtained.
2. The process requires much less time for
completion and operation is quite clean.
3. The equipments used is compact and can be
installed in a limited space.
4. No impurities are precipitated so there is no
danger of sludge formation in the treated water
at later stage.
5. The process automatically adjusts itself for
variation in hardness of incoming water.
6. Maintenance and operation is easy and requires

Disadvantages of Zeolite Process

1. Water containing impurities of mineral acids can
destroy the Zeolite Bed. So mineral acids must
be neutralized before feeding water into Zeolite
bed.
2. Turbid water blocks the pores of zeolite bed and
decreases the efficiency- Turbidity & suspended
matter must be removed before feeding.
3. Water should not be hot. (Dissolves Zeolites).
4. Cations Ca2+, Mg2+ are removed but sulphates,
bicarbonates and chlorides (anions) are not
removed.
5. Treated water has more of sodium ions.

ION- EXCHANGE PROCESS

Ion exchange process also known as demineralization or deionization process.
In De-ionization process all the ions present in water are
eliminated by using ion-exchange resins.
ion-exchange resins are the insoluble, cross-linked, long chain
organic polymers with micropores.
The functional groups attached to the ion exchange resins are
responsible for its ion exchange properties.
Ion exchange resins are classified as:
Cation- exchange resins
Anion- exchange resins

Caion Exchange Resins:

These are also styrene divinyl benzene co-polymers, but these
have acidic functional groups such as sulphonic acids or
carbixlic gps.

These are capable of exchanging their H+ ions

with cations in water.

 In ion-exchange process, hard water is allowed to pass through

cation exchange resins, which remove Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions and
exchange equivalent amount of H+ ions.
Thus by passing hard water through cation exchange resins
hardness is removed by the following reactions 2RH + Ca2+
R2Ca + 2H+
2RH + Mg+2
R2Mg + 2H+
(RH = cation exchange resin)

Anion Exchange Resins:

These are also styrene divinyl benzene co-polymers, but these
have basic functional groups such as amino or quaternary
ammonium groups.

These are capable of exchanging their OHions with anions in water.

Anion
Exchanger

Anions exchange resins remove bicarbonates, chlorides and

sulphates from water exchange equivalent amount of OHions.
ROH + ClRCl + OH2ROH + SO4-2
R2SO4 + 2OH2ROH + CO3-2
R2CO3+ 2OH(ROH = anion exchange resin)

 H+ And OH- ions, thus released in water

from respective cation and anion exchange
columns, get combined to produce water
molecules.
H+ + OHH 2O
The water coming out from the exchanger
is ion free i.e., free from anions and
cations. Thus water of very low hardness is
obtained. Thus water obtained is Distilled
Water.

REGENERATION:
When cation exchanger losses capacity of producing H+ ions
and anion exchanger losses capacity of producing OH- ions,
they are said to be exhausted. The exhausted cation exchanger
is regenerated by passing it through dilute sulphuric acid or
hydrochloric acid.
R2Ca + 2H+
2RH + Ca+2
The exhausted anion exchanger is regenerated by passing a
dilute solution of NaOH.
R2SO4-2 + 2OH2ROH + SO4-2

Demerits of Ion-exchange process:

The equipment is costly and more expensive chemicals are
needed.
If water contains turbidity, the output of the process is reduced.
The turbidity must be below 10 ppm; else it has to be removed
by coagulation and filtration.

Internal Treatment
Of
Removing Hardness

Treatment of water in the boiler body.

Here certain chemicals are added in the water.
These chemicals work in two ways:1. They precipitates the scale forming impurities in the form
of sludge, which can be removed.
2. They convert the scale to the soluble salts and do not
cause any problem.

Methods of internal treatment

Colloidal
Conditionin
g

Carbonate
Conditionin
g

Calgon
Conditionin
g

Phosphate
conditionin
g

Colloidal conditioing:
Chemical used kerosene, agar
agar
These chemicals get adsorbed over
the scale forming precipitates and
forming non-sticky precipitates which
can be easily removed by blow down
operation.

Scale
precipitates

Non-sticky

Phosphate conditioning
Chemical used: sodium phosphate
It reacts with the hardness producing impurities of water and form easily
removable sludge of calcium and magnesium phosphate, which can be
removed by blow down operation.
3CaCl2 + 2Na3PO4

Hardness producing Salts

Ca3(PO4)2 + 6NaCl

Insoluble salts

Three salts of phosphates are used NaH2PO4 - Alkaline water

Na3PO4

- Acidic water

Na2HPO4 - Neutral water

Carbonate Conditioning
Chemical used: Sodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate reacts with CaSO4 to form sludge of CaCO3
which can be removed by blow down operation.
CaSO4 + Na2CO3

CaCO3

Na2SO4

Calgon Conditioning
Chemical used: Sodium hexa metaphosphate Na2[Na4(PO3)6]
Brand name is Calgon.
Calgon react with Ca salt and produces soluble complex.
Na2[Na4(PO3)6]
2Na+ + [Na4(PO3)6]2
2CaSO4 + [Na4(PO3)6]2

[Ca2(PO3)6]2 + 2Na2SO4
Soluble
complex

BOILER PROBLEMS
If hard water is used in the boiler a no. of difficulties
may arise which are listed below:A. Scale and Sludge formation
B. Priming and Foaming
C. Caustic Embrittlement
D. Boiler Corrosion

A. Scale and Sludge formation

In the boilers water evaporates continuously and
concentration of salts dissolved in water increases. It
reaches to a saturation point, forming precipitates on
the inner walls of the boiler.
If the precipitates are in the loose, soft and slimy
form, it is called sludge.
If the precipitates are in the thin, hard and sticky
form then it is called scale.

Sludge
Sludge is actually formed by substances
which have greater solubility in the hot
water than in cold water.
e.g. MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4 etc.
It is formed at that position of the
boiler , where flow of water is slow and
relatively colder parts of the boiler.

Disadvantages of sludge:
a. It is a poor conductor of heat and
hence lot of time and fuel is
needed.
b. It disturbs the functioning of the
boiler. It settles in the regions of
poor water circulation (such as pipe
connection, plug opening) and may
lead to the choking of pipe.

Prevention of sludge formation:

i. By using soft water.
ii. By using blow- down pipe operation.

Scales
It is hard, sticky deposit on inner surface of
boiler.
Formation of scale is due to:1. Decomposition of Ca(HCO3)2 present in water
Ca(HCO3)2

CaCO3 + H2O + CO2

soft scale

Soft scale is formed in low pressure boilers. But in high pressure boilers, CaCO 3 is soluble
in water.
CaCO3 + H2O
Ca(OH)2 + CO2
Soluble

2. Deposition of CaSO4 :.
It is soluble in the cold water, in the hot
water it
gets ppted as hard scale.
.
It is the main cause of scale formation in
high pressure boilers.
3. Hydrolysis of magnesium salts :MgCl2 + 2H2O

Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl
soft scale

4. Presence of Silica (SiO2) :Silica react with Ca and Mg present in hard water to form
Calcium silicate and Magnesium silicate. These silicates
stick to the inner walls of the boiler.

Disadvantages of scale formation

a) Wastage of fuel
b) Lowering of boiler
safety/Overheating of boiler
c) Decrease in efficiency
d) Danger of explosion

Removal of scale
a) Using wire brush and scraching the scale.
b) Thermal shocks can be given.
c) Chemicals:

CaCO3 scales can be dissolved by using 5-10 %

HCl.
CaSO4 scales can be dissolved by EDTA.

d) By blow down operation if the scales are loose

(soft).

Prevention of scale formation

Prevention is always better than cure.
1. External treatment: By using soft water.
2. Internal treatment: Here a chemical is added in water which
may convert scale to sludge which can be blown out or may
convert scale to salt which are soluble in water.

B. Priming and Foaming

Priming:When steam is produced rapidly in boiler some droplets of liquid
water are also carried along with the steam. This process of
wet steam formation is called Priming.
Causes:
Presence of dissolved salts.
High steam velocity to carry water droplets.
Sudden boiling.
Sudden increase in steam production.

Prevention:
By controlling rapid change in steaming velocities.
The proper design of boiler.
By blowing off sludge or scale time to time.

Foaming :Formation of bubbles or foam continuously in the boiler called

Foaming.
Causes: Due the presence of an oil and alkalis in boiler feed
water . They react with each other and form soaps which lower
the surface tension of water and increase the foaming tendency
of the liquid.
Prevention: 1. Addition of antifoaming agents like caster oil.
2. The removal of the foaming agent (oil) from
boiler by the addition of sodium aluminate.

Disadvantages of Priming and Foaming

1. These reduce the efficiency of the boiler or engine.
2. Actual water level cannot accessed in the presence of foam.
3. It is difficult to maintain proper pressure in the boiler.

C.

Caustic Embrittlement

It is the type of boiler corrosion caused by the use of highly

alkaline water (pH > 7) in high pressure boilers.
During softening by lime soda process some residual Na 2CO3
may still present in softened water. In high pressure boiler this
Na2CO3 decomposes to give NaOH and CO2. NaOH thus
produced makes the water caustic.
Na2CO3 + H2O
NaOH + CO2
This caustic water flows into the minute hair like cracks
present in the inner side of the boiler wall by capillary action.
On evaporation of water, the concentration of caustic soda
increases. Due to this iron of the boiler walls dissolved in
caustic soda as sodium ferrate (Na2FeO2). This causes the
embrittlement of the boiler walls particularly stressed parts.

 Caustic embrittlemtnt arises due to

the setting up of a concentration cell.
Iron
presen
t in
cracks

Conc.
NaOH

Dil.
NaOH

Iron
present
at boiler
walls

Anode
Cathode
Dissolution of anodic part takes place.

Prevention of caustic embrittlement

Using Sodium phosphate in place of sodium carbonate for
softening of water.
By adding tanin or lignin oil which fills the cracks present in
boiler wall.
By adding sodium sulphate (Na2SO4 ). It also block the cracks.
The concentration of Na2SO4 should be so that the :Na2SO4 conc. NaOH = 1:1 , 2:1 or 3:1 at pressure up to 10,
20 and above 20 respectively.

D. Boiler Corrosion
This leads to the deterioration of the boiler body by chemical
or electrochemical attack by its environment. The main
reason for it are:1. Dissolved O2 (D.O):- Water has 8ml/litre dissolved
oxygen which attack the boiler body as rusting.
2Fe + 2H2O + O2
2Fe(OH)2 + O2
2[Fe2O3.2H2O]
Rust
Removal: i) DO can be removed by adding Sod. Sulphite
(Na2SO3) or Hydrazine (N2H4) or Sod. Sulphide (Na2S)
because all these consume O2.

2Na2SO3 + O2

Na2SO4

N2H4 + O2

N2 + 2H2O

Na2S + 2O2

Na2SO4

ii) By mechanical de-areation : Using vacuum pump, gases

dissolved in water can be removed.

2. Dissolved CO2 :
CO2 react with water to form carbonic acid as :CO2 + H2O

H2CO3
Carbonic acid

Removal of CO2
i) By adding ammonia: - It absorb CO2
2NH4OH + CO2

(NH4)2CO3 + H2O

ii) Mechanical Method :- Using vacuum pump.

3.Generation of Acids from dissolved salts :Water has dissolved salts which on reaction with water produced
acid as:MgCl2 + 2H2O
Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl
This acid react with boiler bodys iron in a chain reaction to produce
HCl again.
Fe + 2HCl
FeCl2 + H2
FeCl2 + 2H2O
Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl
So, the presence of small amount of MgCl 2 may cause corrosion to
a large extent.
Removal:- Mineral acid can be removed by adding alkali.

Water
for
Domestic
Use

Specification of water for domestic use

It should be clear and odorless.

It should be devoid of any unpleasant taste.
Suspended matter/ turbidity should not exceed 10 ppm.
Hardness should not exceed 300 ppm
It should be devoid of heavy metals (Pb, Cr, As, Ni, Mn etc) .
pH should be about 7 - 8.0 .
Content of dissolved salts/ TDS should not exceed 500 ppm.
Lastly, it should be free from pathogenic (disease causing)
microorganisms.

Methods for treatment of water for domestic

use
1. Coagulation
2. Sedimentation

Used for the removal

of suspended impurities

3. Filtration
4. Sterilization/Disinfection

Used to remove bacteria

Screening & Sedimentation

5m

Screening: Floating and suspended matter

screened through micro strainers.
Sedimentation: The heavy particles (floc)
settle to the bottom and the clear water
moves to filtration

Coagulation
Sedimentation removes only 70-75% of the
suspended impurities. So, Sedimentation
with coagulants are required that coagulate
small particles into larger particles, which
settle out of the water as sediment.
Coagulant Used1. Potash Alum [K2SO4 Al2(SO4)3. .24H2O]
2. Sodium aluminate [NaAlO2 ]
3. Ferrous sulphate [Fe2SO4 .7H2O]

Coagulant works in two ways:1. Coagulant reacts with bicarbonates and form form bulky
gelatinous precipitates of Al(OH)3 called flock.
Al2 (SO4)3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2
2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2
Fe SO4 + Mg(HCO3)2
2Fe(OH)2 + MgCO3 + CO2 + H2O
NaAlO2 + H2O
NaOH + Al(OH)3
(Flocculant)
These flocks catch the suspended particles from water and
form bigger flocks and settle down easily.
2. The suspended particles of silica and clay carries ve charge.
So , they repel each other and do not settle down. Then we
add alum . The Al3+ ions of alum neutralize the ve charge
and settle down easily.

Filtration
Sand Filter

Pressure Filter

Sterilization or Disinfection
The process of removing bacteria from water is called
disinfection. The chemicals used for this method are
called disinfectants.
There are mainly five methods
1. Boiling
2. Chlorination
3. Ozonisation
4. U.V rays
5. Aeration

1. Boiling
Boiling water for 10-15 minutes. This kills all the disease
producing bacteria.
But this method is expensive for large amount of water
(municipal water supply) .

2. Chlorination

Chlorinatio
n
By Bleaching
Powder

By Chlorine
gas

By
Chloramines

By Bleaching Powder
About 1 Kg bleaching powder (CaOCl2) is added to
about 1000 litres of water and the reaction occur
as:Here HOCl and [O] are powerful germicides.
CaOCl2 + H2O
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
Cl2 + H2O
HOCl + HCl
HOCl
HCl + [O]
Germs + [O]
Germs are oxidised

By Using Chlorine Gas:

Chlorine used as a gas or as a Chlorine water for sterilization and
gives the following reactions:Cl2 + H2O
HOCl + HCl
HOCl
HCl + [O]
Germs + [O]
Germs are oxidised
Here HOCl and [O] are powerful germicides.
High temperature increase the reaction.
Small pH value gives good result.

Advantages:
Economical
Little space for storage
It is stable and does not deteriorate
It does not release any salt (Ca, Mg).
Disadvantages:
Excess of chlorine leads to unpleasant taste and
smell to water.
It also have irritating effect on mucous membranes.
Therefore, treated water should not contain more than
0.1-0.2 ppm of free Cl2 .

By using Chloramines
Chlorine and ammonia are mixed in the ratio 2:1 by volume to
produce chloramines
Cl2 + NH3
ClNH2 + HCl
Chloramine (ClNH2 ) reacts with water and give reactions as:ClNH2 + 2H2O
HOCl + NH4OH
HOCl
HCl + [O]
Germs + [O]
Germs are oxidised

Advantages:
1. It removes irritating smell due to
excess of Chlorine
2. It imparts good taste to water.

Break

Point Chlorination

It is the more precisely controlled process in which just

sufficient Chlorine is added to oxidize all the organic matters,
react with any reducing agent such as ammonia etc and
destroy bacteria leaving a slightly excess of free chlorine.

Break Point Chlorination

Zone-I :- In the starting all the added chlorine is used up in the oxidation
of reducing agents (NH3, H2S) .
Zone-II :- With further increase in the amount of chlorine, the amount
of residual chlorine increases and formation of chloro-organic
compounds and chloramines takes place.
HOCl + NH3
NH2Cl (Monochloroamine) + H2O
HOCl + NH2Cl
NHCl2 (Dichloroamine) + H2O
HOCl + NHCl 2
NCl3 (Nitrogen trichloride) + H2O
Chloramines formed above act as chlorine reserves
Zone-III :- At this concentration the destruction of chloro-organic
compounds and chloramines takes place, till a minima in the curve is
obtained (Break point Chlorination).
Zone-IV :- Here added chlorine is not used in any reaction called free
residual chlorine. It kills all the bacteria present in water.

3. Ozonisation
By passing silent electric
discharge through cold and dry
O2 , O3 is produced which is an
excellent disinfectant.
3O2
2O3
ozone

Ozone is unstable decomposes and

give O2 and Nascent [O]
O3
O2 + [O]
germs + [O]
germs
oxidized

4. By U.V. rays
Ultra violet rays are very effective in killing all
types of bacteria. For this purpose U.V. lamps are
used. This method is widely used for the
disinfection of swimming pools because chemicals
may harm to the skin of swimmers.
5.By Aeration
Here water is forced under pressure through a
perforated pipe . As water spray into air , it comes
into contact with oxygen and UV rays. This kills the
bacteria and oxidize organic matters.

Saline Water: It is the general term for

water that contains a significant
concentration of dissolved salts (NaCl).
Water quality usually graded as:1) Fresh water: less than 1000mg/l of
dissolved salts.
2) Brackish water or saline water:
1000 3500
mg/l of dissolved salts.
3) Sea water: greater than 3500 mg/l of
dissolved salts.

Quality of water
Fresh Water-Dissolved salts less
than
1000ppm
Brackish Water- Dissolved salts
1000-3500ppm
Sea Water-Dissolved salts more than
3500ppm

Desalination of Brackish
Water
The water which contain excess salt
concentration is called Brackish water.
The process of removal of dissolved
salts from saline water water is called
desalination or desalting.
The main purpose is to make the
water suitable for drinking, irrigation,
industrial uses.

Techniques for Desalination

1.Distillation
2.Freezing
3.Electrodialysis
4.Reverse Osmosis

1. Distillation: Saltwater is heated in high

evaporator to make the water evaporate,
leaving the salt behind. The desalined
vapours are then condensed to form
water in a separate container. But this
method is expensive.
2. Freezing: When salt water is cooled, salt
is left in mother liquor and ice crystals
are formed. These crystals are separated,
washed and melted to get pure water.

3. Electrodialysis: