Predicate Logic, Sets, and

Lambda: Tools for semantic

analysis

KELOMPOK 3
Anna
Kurniani

Lee Yong
Hwa
Indah
Melisa

Dede
Fatinova

Dosen Pengampu
Dr. Aceng Ruhendi Syaefullah,
M. Hum.

Lp the language of
predicate logic

Predica
te
Logic
The basis for
analyzing the
structure of
simple
propositions.

The simplet well-formed

formula in Lp consist of :
A PREDICATE
A number of ARGUMENTS
Symbolized by TERMS

Where n is an integer, an n place

predicate, Pred is a predicate with
arguments numbering n
Px is a one
place
predicate
(Pred1)
Pxy is a two
place
predicate
(Pred2)
Pxyz is a
three place
predicate
(Pred3)

Max
jogs
The
book
is red
Max is
a
bache
lor

jog^Max

be_red^the_
book
be_a_bachel
or^Max

a. Max drank the

beer
b. The beer was
drunk by Max

drink^
Max^the_beer
Transitive
Verbs

Archie admires
himseld

admires^Archie^Ar
chie

Mary is
(Harrys wife)
(The wife of Harry)

be_wife_to^Mary^
Harry

Relational
Complement

Archie gave
Beatrice the camera

give^Archie^Beatri
ce^the_camera

Ditransitive
Verbs

A two place predicate P is SYMMETRIC iff for

any wff Pxy, Pxy <-> Pyx

X is husband to Y <-> Y is wife to X

X is the parentof Y <-> Y is the child

of X

X buys Y from Z <-> Z sells Y to X

PREDIC
ATE
LOGIC
quantif
ers:

Universal
quantifer
for all

Existensial
quantifer
there is at
least one

Every variable is either bound

by a quantifer or else it is free

Meaning postulates
The formal semantics of natural
language cannot be expressed
without recourse to the non
logical vocabulary of meaning
postulates which identify the
semantic properties of listemes
(Carnap 1956:222-9)
What is postulates?
The non-logical vocabulary (in this
book, words of English) used in the
semantic specifcation of listeme

Form

Semantic specification

24

Know

(know that p)

25

Believe

(believe that p)

26

Alive

(y is alive)

27

Dead

(y is dead)

28

Kill

(x kill y)
become(alive)))

(p=T)
possibly p
(y is dead)
(y is alive)
(x cause (y

McCawley postulated a V NP
NP structure reminiscent of Pxy
in Lp,

35 x kills y
Tolong lihat halaman 224

Tree 35
:Predicate
raising

KILL

Predicate logic, sets, and lambda: tools for

semantic analysis

Predicate raising
(a) x kills y

X cause BECOME NOT

ALIVE y

(b) x causes y to die

X causes y BECOME NOT

ALIVE

(c) x causes y to cease to be

alive

x causes y BECOME NOT to

be alive

(d) ?? x causes y to become

dead

X causes y become NOT

ALIVE

(e) ?*x causes y to become

not alive
(f) *x causes to become y not
alive
(g) *x causes to become not
alive

Logically equivalent
a

I have four children

I have 1 child 1 child 1 child 1 child

I have two children and another two

children

I have one child three children

I have one less than five children

I have sixteen less than twenty

children

I have one more than three children

I have three more than one child

I have four times one child

I have two times two children

I have two-squared children

I have the square root of sixteen

children

I have the same number of children

as there are 25s in 100

There is considerable
evidence that some of
theses arithmetical
processes are normal
in the lexicalizing of
number systems.
Ex. Fourteen and
eighteen are four (+)
ten and eight (+)
ten

The main thesis of generative semantics

was that syntactic and semantic
representations are labelled trees and a
single system of rules relates the
semantic representation to surface form
through intermediate stages.

The semantic specifcations for kill

and die cannot do without kill (x,y)
and die (y).

Set
and Tuples
s
A set is an unordered
collection of members (or
elements)

SETS

F = (your-eye, the-Vatican, b, a-night-with-briginebardot, 2)

G = ( a,b,c) = (b,a,c) = (c,b,a)
the-Vatican F

the-Vatican G

aF

aG

x:x is one of the frst three letters of the English

alphabet
The set of all x such that x is one of the frst
three letters of the English alphabet

Assumption 7.3:
every set is a subset
of it self
Defnition7.7:
A is SUBSET of B,
AB, iff every
member of A is also
a member of B.
More formally:
AB Vx[xA-xB)

Defnition7.8: A set that

consist of only one
member, e.g {b}, is a
unit set

Assumption 7.4: one

subset of every set
is the NULLSET, =
{}: therefore G

For instance (a,b,c) G says the set (a,b,c) is a subset

of the set G
The rest of the subsets of G are proper sebsets
because they
are included within it along with other subset

(a) B (b) G (c) G (a.b) G

(a,c) G

(b,c) G

Any two sets are identical of they contain two

and members. If follows that it B A and also A
B then A=B

A= (x:x is one of the frst three letters of the English

alphabet)
G= (a, b, c)
A=G

Every member of A
OVERLAP B is a
member of A and
also a member of B
more formally

FG= (a, b, your-eye, a-night-withBrigitte-Bardot, 2, c, the Vatican

Any member of A
MERGE B is member
of A and or a
member of B more
formally

b CP = b is a cat with a pink

ribbon
b CD = b is either a cat or a dog

Predicate defnes a
set

Jack is the same height as himself

(= Jack)
Jack is the same height as Harry
Harry is the same height as Jack

The Lambda Operator,

Also known as the
abstraction or set operator
can bind predicates or sets of
entities having the property
specifed by the formula within s
scope

is not an operator within standard-frst order predicate

calculus. Its a corner stone of model theoritic semantics

using type theory

 use of the -operator increases the

explanation value of the
metalanguage base it allows us to
extend the metalanguage beyond Lp.
x = x is free variable within
formula (the same function
typed as Pred1

Its not a sentence, its the name of

function

A function () from entities (x)

to truth value () (provided
certain conditions are met)

To become a sentence, the function must be applied to an argument

From English to Lp
Jack is tall and bald
(TjBj)
Is bald

Representing the fact that Jack is a member of the set of tall

things and also a member of the bald things.
But not explicity represent the fact that Jack is a member of
the overlapset; the set of things which are both tall and bald.

x
[TxBx]

the property of being tall

and bald or the set of
individuals that are bothtall
and bald

Its not a sentence, and not yet a translation.

Its a functional looking for an argument to bacome a sentence

in order to yield a truth value . This reqirement can be met by
applying it to constant j:

x
[TxBx]

x
[TxBx]

(j)

A sentence
that yield a
truth value

We converted it into a
standard formula of Lp
namely in (TjBj) by
replacing
variable
with
For every occurrence of the
variable bound
by , x
LAMBDA
constant
CONVERSION substitutes the term given
in the jparentheses
immediately following the scope of lambda. The latter in then
deleted, along with the -operator, is bound variable, and any
extraneous brackets.

x [TxBx](j)
TjBj

[j/x]

x[ TjBj ](j)

symbolizes substitute constant j for variable x

Additional evidence for the explanatory value of expression is to be had from a discussion of active-passive
pairs. Because they are truth-functionally synonymous.
active-passive pairs have the same translation in Lp,

(a) Frank admires Harry

Afh
(b) Harry is admired by Frank

Using the -operator in the translation rectifes

the situation. admire is of type Pred2, two
variables are separately bound by two operators.
y[x[Axy]] the property of x admiring by y
x[x[Axy]] the property of y being admired by x

Conversion proceeds from wider scope to

narrower scope, from left to right. The lefmost bound variable is associated with the leftmost
constant.

yx[Axy]
(h) (f)
xy[Axy] (f)
(h)

[h/y]

x[Axh]
(f)

[f/x]

y[Afy]
(h)

Afh
[f/x]

Afh
[h/y]

The different paths to Afh are explicit. Notice how

the surface subject is the last term to be
converted (innermost -bound variable, outmost
constant
following
the
scope of lambda).
Glosses for
the medial
subformulae
both the same type
as Pred1,

x[Axh] the propertyof Harrys being admired by something

(=x) or the set of individuals that Harry is admiredf by.
= {x:x admires Harry}, which is a Pred1 type expression as
distinct from the sentence type: x[Axh] (f) = f{x:x admires
Harry}

y[Afy] the property of Franks admiring something

(=y) or the set of individuals that Frank admires/ that
are admired by Frank
The Pred1 type expression is y[Afy] ={ y:y is admired by
Frank}, and the sentence type expression is y[Afy] (h)=
h {y:y is admired by Frank}.

The -operator can occur with the

universal and the exintensial
quantifers.
Tom ate a sausage Angeline cooked
x[y[SyCay](x) Etx]
x[y[SxCaxEtx]

Glosses for subformulae are:

Pred1 type: y[SyCay] the property of being an
Angeline-cooked sauusage or the set of individuals that
are Angeline-cooked-sausage
Sentence type: y[SyCay] (x) x has the property of
being an Angeline-cooked sauusage or x {y:y is an
Angeline-cooked-sasusage}
The existensial quantifer bind x, so x[sxEtx] translates
there is at least one x which has the property of being
Angeline-cooked-sausage and Tom ate it
The -operator spells out the semantic composition of the
English sentence in a manner closer to the surface structure
of English than is possible in the standard Lp
metalanguage.

-can bind predicate variables as well as term

variables.