Designing and Building

File-Folder Bridges as an
Introduction to Engineering

The Waddell ATruss Bridge

COL Stephen Ressler, P.E., Ph.D.
Department of Civil & Mechanical
Engineering
U.S. Military Academy, West Point

Objectives
Learn

about structural
engineering:
Through

a hands-on bridgebuilding project.

Through the use of free computer
software.
Learn

about the ongoing

West Point Bridge Design
Contest.

A Typical Bridge Students

Building
receiveProject
a pile of Popsicle
sticks and some glue.
Students build a bridge, based on...
A picture.
A vague idea of what a bridge should
look like.

Bridges

are weighed.
Bridges are tested to failure.
Highest strength-to-weight ratio wins.

What
What do
do students
students actually
actually learn
learn from
from this
this experien
experien

What They Dont Learn

The
The Essential
Essential Characteristics
Characteristics Of
Of Engineering
Engineering

A systematic design process precedes

construction.
Engineers design; Contractors build.
The design process is informed by math and
science.
Design is iterative.
Structures are designed to carry codespecified loads safely and economically.

Designed to stand up, not to fail.

Strength-to-weight ratio is never the objective.

Why File Folders?

Inexpensive.
Easy

to cut, bend, and glue.

Surprisingly predictable structural
behavior.
Can be used to build:
Tubes and bars.
Connections that are stronger than the
attached structural members.

Our Agenda
Introduction to Truss Bridges
Start building a truss
Forces and equilibrium
Continue building the truss
Structural analysis
Finish the truss
Materials testing
Structural evaluation
Structural design

This
This
allows
allows
time
time for
for
the
the glue
glue
to
to dry
dry

Manual method
Using the West Point Bridge Designer

What You Need to

For Know
building a file-folder bridge:

NONE

For

analyzing a file-folder bridge:

Basic algebra
These
These
Geometry Pythagorean Theoremconcepts
concepts
could
could be
be
Trigonometry sine and cosine
taught
taught in
in
the
Physics forces, equilibrium
the
context
context of
of
Computers spreadsheets
this
this

For

project
project

the West Point Bridge Designer

NONE

What is a Truss?

A structure composed of members connected

together to form a rigid framework.

Usually composed of interconnected triangles.

Members carry load in tension or compression.

Component Parts
Top Chord

Diagonal

End Post
Hip Vertical

Deck

Support (Abutment)

Vertical

Bottom Chord

Standard Truss
Configurations

Pratt

Parker

K-Truss

Howe

Camelback

Warren

Fink

Double Intersection Pratt

Warren (with Verticals)

Bowstring

Baltimore

Double Intersection Warren

Waddell A Truss

Pennsylvania

Lattice

Types of Structural
Members
Solid Rod
Solid Bar
Hollow Tube
-Shape

These
These shapes
shapes are
are called
called
cross-sections.
cross-sections.

Types of Truss
Pinned
Gusset Plate
Connections
Connection
Connection

Most
Most modern
modern bridges
bridges use
use gusset
gusset plate
plate connection
connectio

Lets build this bridge...

Waddel A Truss Bridge over Lin Branch

Creek

The Design
Design

Requirements:
Span30 cm
Loading5 kg
(at midspan)

10 mm x 10 mm Tube
Doubled 4 mm Bar
Doubled 2 mm Bar

Well
Well talk
talk about
about how
how it
it was
was designed
designed
later...
later...

Our A-Truss Bridge

Materials &
File folders
Equipment
Yellow

carpenters glue
Building board (Styrofoam or cork)
Pins
Scissors
Metal ruler*
Hobby knife or single-edge razor
blade*
Rubber cement*

*Required only for prefabrication of structural members

Prefabrication of
Cut out bars
Members

Cut out and assemble

tubes
Cut out gusset plates
Trim bars and tubes to
length

Gluing Flap

Rubber Cement

Trim Bars and Tubes

Bottom
Chords
to
Length
(2 per team)

Trim Bars and Tubes

Bottom
Chords
to
Length
(2 per team)

Trim Bars and Tubes

Verticals
to
Length
(2 per team)

Trim Bars and Tubes

Verticals
to
Length
(2 per team)

Trim Bars and Tubes

End Posts
to
Length
(2 per team)

Trim Bars and Tubes

End Posts
to
Length
(2 per team)

Set up the Building

Each Team
Member:
Board

Place the layout drawing on your building board.

Set up the Building

Place aBoard
sheet of plastic wrap over the layout
drawing.

Add Gusset Plates

Place Gusset Plate A at its correct location on the

layout drawings.
Hold it in place with two pins.

Add Gusset Plates

Repeat the process for Gusset Plates B, C, and D.

Add Bars

Apply a line of glue along the bottom edge of Gusset

Plates A, B, and C.
Place a 2 mm bar in position as the bottom chord
AC.
Stretch tight and hold in place with two pins.

Add Bars

Apply glue to Gusset Plates B and D.

Place a 4 mm bar in position as the vertical member
BD.
Stretch tight and hold in place with your fingers.
Each
team should now have two of these subassemblies

the lower half and the upper half of one truss.

Add Tubes
For the bottom half of the truss (one per team):
Apply glue to Gusset Plates A and D.
Place a 10mm x 10mm
tube in position as end post
AD.
Hold in place for a
minute until the glue sets.

Add Tubes

Apply glue to Gusset Plates C and D.

Place a 10 mm x 10 mm tube in position as end post
AD.
Hold in place for a
minute until the glue sets.

Add Tubes

Cut a 2 cm length of 10 mm x 10 mm tube.

Apply glue to Gusset Plate B.
Place the tube vertically on the gusset plate.
Hold in place for a minute until the glue sets.

The Finished HalfAllow all

glue joints to dry.
Truss

Forces, Loads, &

Force
Reactions
A push or pull.
Load

A force applied to a structure.

Self-weight
Self-weight of
of structure,
structure, weight
weight of
of
vehicles,
vehicles, pedestrians,
pedestrians, snow,
snow, wind,
wind, etc.
etc.

Reaction

A force developed at the

support of a structure to keep that
structure in equilibrium.
Forces
Forces are
are represented
represented mathematically
mathematically
as
as
VECTORS.
VECTORS.

Equilibrium
Newtons First Law:
An object at rest will remain at rest,
provided it is not acted upon by an
unbalanced force.
A Load...

...and Reactions

Tension and
An unloaded
member experiences no deformation
Compression
Tension causes a member to get longer

Compression causes a member to shorten

Tension and
Compression

EXTERNAL
EXTERNAL FORCES
FORCES and
and INTERNAL
INTERNAL FORCES
FORCES
Must
Must be
be in
in equilibrium
equilibrium with
with each
each other.
other.

Assemble the Two

Pull outHalves
all of the pins on both halves of the truss.

Carefully separate the upper half of the truss from the

plastic wrap.
Keep the lower half of the truss on the building board.

Assemble the Two

Put glueHalves
on the tubes at A, B, C, and D.
Place the upper half
Stretch the bars tight
set.

onto the lower half.

and hold until the glue has

Assemble the Two

Allow all
glue joints on the completed truss to dry.
Halves

Structural Analysis
For

a given load, find the internal forces

(tension and compression) in all
members.
Why?
Procedure:

Model the structure:

Define supports
Define loads
Draw a free body diagram.

Calculate reactions.
Calculate internal forces using
Method of Joints.

Model the Structure

15 cm

15 cm
D

15 cm
A

mass=5 kg
=2.5 kg per truss

Draw a Free Body

Diagram
15 cm
15 cm
D

15 cm
A

y
RA

mass=2.5
24.5N kg

RC

F ma 2.5kg 9.81 m sec 2 24.5 N

Calculate Reactions
Total downward force is
24.5 N.
Total upward force must
be 24.5 N.
Loads, structure, and
reactions are all
symmetrical.

Centerline

SOUP

SCALE

SCALE

Centerline
Centerline
SOUP

R
RAA and
and R
RCC
must
must be
be
equal.
equal.

SCALE

SCALE

Centerline

Calculate Reactions
24.5
RA RC
12.3N
2
15 cm

15 cm
D

15 cm
A

y
12.3
RA
N
x

24.5 N

12.3
R
C
N

Method of Joints

Isolate a Joint.
15 cm

15 cm
D

15 cm
A

y
12.3
N
x

24.5 N

12.3
R
C
N

Method of Joints
Isolate a Joint.
Draw a free body diagram of
y
the joint.

FAD

A
FAB

12.3
Include any external loads of
N
reactions applied at the joint.
x
Include unknown internal forces
at every point where a member was cut.
Assume unknown forces in tension.

Solve the Equations of Equilibrium for the

Joint.

EXTERNAL
EXTERNAL FORCES
FORCES and
and INTERNAL
INTERNAL FORCES
FORCES
Must
Must be
be in
in equilibrium
equilibrium with
with each
each other.
other.

Equations of
The Equilibrium
sum of all forces acting in

FAD

the x-direction must equal zero.

Fx 0

FAB
12.3
N
x

The sum of all forces acting in

the y-direction must equal zero.

For forces that act in a diagonal direction,

we must consider both the x-component
and the y-component of the force.

Components of Force
y

(FAD)y

FAD

(FAD)x

If

magnitude of FAD is represented as the

hypotenuse of a right triangle...

Then

the magnitudes of (FAD)x and (FAD)y are

represented by the lengths of the sides.

Trigonometry Review
Definitions:

Therefore:

x H cos
y H sin

adjacent
x
cos

hypotenuse H
opposite
y
sin

hypotenuse H

Components of Force
y

(FAD)y

FAD

45
A

Therefore:

45
A

(FAD)x

x H cos

FAD x FAD cos 45 0.707 FAD

y H sin

FAD y FAD sin 45 0.707 FAD

Equations of
Equilibrium
F

0.707 FAD

FAB 0.707 FAD 0

FAB 0.707 FAD

FAB ? 0.707(17.3) 12.3N

FAD
0.707
FAD
FAB

12.3
N
x

FAB=12.3 N (tension)

12.3 0.707 FAD 0

0.707 FAD 12.3
FAD

12.3

17.3N
0.707

FAD=17.3 N (compression)

Method of
Isolate
Joints...Again
another
Joint.

15 cm

15 cm
D

15 cm
A

y
12.3
N
x

24.5 N

12.3
R
C
N

Equations of
Equilibrium
F

0
x

FAB FBC 0

FAB

FBC FAB 12.3N

FBC=12.3 N (tension)

24.5 FBD 0
FBD 24.5 N
FBD=24.5 N (tension)

FBD
B

y
24.5 N
x

FBC

17
.3
(C N
)

24.5 N (T)

17
.3
(C N
)

Results of Structural
Analysis D

B
12.3 N (T)

C
12.3 N (T)
12.3 N

12.3 N
24.5 N

Do
Do these
these results
results make
make
sense?
sense?

Finish the Truss

Trim off the excess length on both

bottom chords (AC) .

17
.3
(C N
)

24.5 N (T)

17
.3
(C N
)

Results of Structural
Analysis D

B
12.3 N (T)

C
12.3 N (T)
12.3 N

12.3 N
24.5 N

In
In our
our model,
model, what
what kind
kind of
of members
members are
are
used
used for
for tension?
tension? for
for compression?
compression?

Materials Testing
Strength

The largest internal force

a structural member can experience
before it fails.
Failure The condition that occurs
when the internal force exceeds the
strength of a member
TENSILE
TENSILE STRENGTH
STRENGTH
COMPRESSIVE
COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH
STRENGTH

A Hydraulic Testing
Machine

Our Low-Budget
Testing Machine
Loading Arm
Pivot

Notch

C-Line
Temporary
Support

T-Line
Felt
Pads

Post

Base

Testing Tensile
The Strength
test setup.

Testing Tensile
Clamp
the test specimen to the lever arm.
Strength

Testing Tensile
Slowly
add sand to the bucket.
Strength

Testing Tensile
WhenStrength
the specimen breaks, weigh the bucket
and compute the tensile strength.

The Principle of the

Lever
F
F
1

L1

L2

F1 L1 F2 L2
L2

F1 F2
L
1

Results of Tension
Tensile
Testing
strength depends on:
Type of material
Thickness of cross-section
Width of cross-section

Tensile

strength does not depends

on:
Length of member
Shape of cross-section

Solid Rod
Solid Bar
Hollow Tube
-Shape

Process the
Experimental Results

Test
Number
T1
T1
T1
T2
T2
T2
T3
T3
T3

Member
Width
(mm)
4
4
4
6
6
6
8
8
8

Mass of
Bucket & Sand
(g)
942
996
928
1497
1424
1398
1880
1909
1832

Weight of
Bucket & Sand
(N)
9.2
9.8
9.1
14.7
14.0
13.7
18.4
18.7
18.0

Tensile
Strength
(N)
25.7
27.2
25.3
40.8
38.8
38.1
51.3
52.1
50.0

Convert from grams to newtons

Apply the Principle of the Lever to calculate strength

Graph the Results

60.0

Tensile Strength (newtons)

50.0

40.0

Trend Line
30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
0

Member Width (mm)

Testing Compressive
The
test setup.
Strength

Testing Compressive
A compression
specimen at failure.
Strength

Results of
Compressive
Compression
Testing
strength depends
on:
Type of material
Length of member
Width and thickness of cross-section
Shape of cross-section

Bar

Tube

Graph the Results

Compressive Strength (newtons)

180
160
140

10 mm x 10 mm tubes

Best fit curve

120
100

95% confidence curve

80
60
40
20
0
0

10

15

Length (cm)

20

25

Structural Evaluation
Is

the internal member force less

than the strength for each member?

Calculate

the Factor of Safety:

Strength
Factor of Safety
Internal Force

Tensile Strength of
Member AC

60.0

Tensile Strength (newtons)

50.0

40.0

Trend Line
30.0

26 N
20.0

10.0

Doubled 2 mm bar
0.0
0

Member Width (mm)

Factor of Safety for

Member AC Strength

Factor of Safety (FS)

26N
FS
2.1 > 1
12.3N

Internal Force

SAFE!

Structures
Structures are
are normally
normally designed
designed
for
for aa
FS
FS of
of at
at least
least 1.6.
1.6.

Strength of Member
AD

Compressive Strength (newtons)

180
160
140

10 mm x 10 mm tubes
120

95% confidence curve

100

80 80
N
60
40

15cm

LAB

20

15cm 21.2cm
2

0
0

10

15

Length (cm)

20

21.2

25

Factor of Safety for AD

Strength
Factor of Safety (FS)
Internal Force

80N
FS
4.6 > 1 VERY SAFE!
17.3N
Are
Are the
the end
end posts
posts excessively
excessively
strong?
strong?

Place the Structure

into Service

The completed bridge

Load test with 5 kg of sand
suspended from midspan

Structural Design

Design Requirements:

Span, loading, factor of safety

Decide on truss configuration.

Perform a structural analysis.

Reactions
Internal member forces

Select member sizes based on required

strength.
Draw plans.
Please
Please
Build the bridge.
dont
dont
Test Can the bridge carry
break
break
the required loading safely?
the bridge!

the bridge!

The West Point Bridge

Look
Designer
and feel of a standard CAD package.
Easy to create a successful design.
Hard to create a highly competitive design.
Highly successful:

Over 150,000 copies downloaded since 2000.

Two major national software awards.
Formally endorsed as an educational tool by the
American Society of Civil Engineers.

Runs on Windows 95 (or later) PC.

The West Point Bridge

Started
on January Contest
8, 2004.
Design
Students age 13 through grade 12 are eligible for
prizes.

To enter:

Use the West Point Bridge Designer 2004 to design a bridge.

Upload the design to our website for automated judging.

Receive instant feedback about contest standing.

$15,000 scholarships for the winners.

Participation is free!

Summary

File-folder bridges:

The West Point Bridge Designer:

Accurate representation of real bridges

Vehicle for learning engineering concepts.
Design based on authentic applications of
math, science, and computer technology.
Experience the engineering design process.
Free!

The West Point Bridge Design Contest:

Please help us make it successful!