CHE 433 THERMODYNAMICS

Chapter 3:
ENERGY, ENERGY
TRANSFER AND GENERAL
ENERGY ANALYSIS

FORMS OF ENERGY

Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal,

mechanical, kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical,
and nuclear, and their sum constitutes the total energy, E
of a system.
Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total
energy.
Macroscopic forms of energy: Those related to motion and
the influence of some external effects such as gravity,
magnetism, electricity and surface tension. E.g. kinetic and
potential energies.
Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the
molecular structure of a system and the degree of the
molecular activity.
Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms
of energy.

The macroscopic energy of an

object changes with velocity and

Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system

possesses as a result of its motion relative to
some reference frame.
Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy per unit

mass

Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system

possesses as a result of its elevation in a
gravitational field.
Potential
energy

Potential energy per unit

mass

Magnetic, electric and surface tension effects are usually ignored.

Total energy
of a system

Total energy
per unit mass
Closed system remain stationary
during a process and thus no change
in PE and KE (stationary system).
E = U
Control volume involve fluid flow for
long periods of time. It is convenient
to express the energy flow in the rate
form by incorporating the mass flow
rate (the amount of mass flowing

Energy of a
system per unit
mass

Mass flow
rate
Energy flow rate
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ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT

Energy can cross the
boundaries of a closed
system in the form of
heat and work.

Heat: Energy that is

transferred between two
systems (or a system and its
surroundings) because of a

Temperature difference is the

driving force for heat transfer. The
larger the temperature difference,
the higher is the rate of heat
transfer.
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There are two ways a process can be

adiabatic:
- The system is well insulated so that
only a negligible amount of heat can
pass through the boundary
- Both system and surroundings are at
the same temperature (no driving force
for heat transfer).
During an adiabatic process, a
system exchanges no heat with its
surroundings.

Heat transfer per unit

mass
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate is
constant

Amount of heat transfer

when heat transfer rate
changes with time

ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK

Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a
distance.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire
crossing the system boundaries are all associated with work
interactions
Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done
by a system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done
on a system are negative.
Work done
Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to
per unit
indicate direction.
mass

Power is the
work done
per unit time

Specifying the
directions of heat and

Heat vs. Work

Both are recognized at the
boundaries of a system as they
cross the boundaries. That is, both
heat and work are boundary
phenomena.
Systems possess energy, but not
heat or work.
Both are associated with a
process, not a state. Unlike
properties, heat or work has no
meaning at a state.
Both are path functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path
followed are
during
a process
ashave
well
Properties
point
functions
as the
end states).
exact
differentials
(d ).

Path functions have inexact

differentials ( )

Properties are point functions;

but heat and work are path
functions (their magnitudes
depend on the path followed).
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MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK

There are two requirements for a work interaction

between a system and its surroundings to exist:
there must be a force acting on the boundary.
the boundary must move.

Work = Force
Distance

When force is not

constant

The work done is proportional to the

force applied (F) and the distance

If there is no
movement, no work is
done.
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Shaft
Work

A force F acting
through a moment
arm r generates a
torque T
This force acts through a distance
s

Shaft
work
The power transmitted through the
shaft is the shaft work done per
unit time

Energy transmission through rotating

shafts is commonly encountered in
practice.

Shaft work is proportional to

the torque applied and the
number of revolutions of the10

Example 1
Determine the power transmitted through the
shaft of a car when the torque applied is 200 N.m
and the shaft rotates at a rate of 4000
revolutions per minute (rpm).
1kJ
4000
1min

& 2
W&sh 2 nT
200
N

60 s 1000 N m
min

83.8kW

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When a force is applied on a spring,

the length of the spring changes.

Spring
Work

Substituting and integrating

yield

Elongation
of a spring
under the
influence
of a force.

x1 and x2: the initial and the

final displacements

When the length of the spring

changes by
a differential amount dx under the
influence of a force F, the work done
is
For linear elastic springs, the
displacement x is proportional to the
force applied
k: spring constant
(kN/m)

The displacement of a
linear spring doubles
when the force is
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Example 2
Determine work required (in kJ) to compress a
spring whose spring constant is 300 kN/m a
distance of 3 cm from its unloaded length.
x22 x12
W Fds kxdx k xdx k

2
2
1
1
1
300 kN m
2

0.03m 02
2
0.135kN m
2

1kJ
0.135kJ
1kN m

0.135kN m

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Work Done on
Elastic Solid
Bars

Work
Associated with
the Stretching
of a Liquid Film

A = cross sectional area

= normal stress (has pressure
units)

dA 2b dx
F 2b s

Solid bars
behave as
springs
under the
influence of
a force.

s surface tension force per unit length

Stretching a liquid film with a

movable wire.
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Work Done to Raise or to

Accelerate a Body
1. The work transfer needed
to raise a body is equal to
the change in the
potential energy of the
body.
2. The work transfer needed
to accelerate a body is
equal to the change in the
kinetic energy of the body.

The energy
transferred to a
body while being
raised is equal to
the change in its
potential energy.
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Example 3
Determine the energy required to accelerate an
800 kg car from rest to 100km/h on a level road.
1
Wa m V22 V12
2
2

1
km
1h
1000m
1kJ
1N
800kg 100

0
309kJ

2
2
h 3600 s 1km

1000 N m 1kg m / s

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Example 4
A damaged 1200 kg car is being towed by a
truck. Neglecting the friction, air drag, and rolling
resistance, determine the extra power required
(a) for constant velocity on a level road
(b) for constant velocity of 50 km/h on a 30o
(from horizontal) uphill road
(c) to accelerate on a level road from stop to 90
km/h in 12 s.

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Power required is the sum of the rates of changes in potential and kinetic energies
W& W& W&
total

( a) zero
(b) W& 0
a

z
W&total W&g mg z2 z1 t mg
mgV sin 30o
t
50000m 1kJ kg
1200kg 9.81 m s 2
0.5 81.7 kW

2
2
3600
s
1000
m
s

(c) W& 0
g

90000m 2 1kJ kg
1
1
2
2
W&total W&a m V2 V1 t 1200kg
0

1000m 2 s 2
2
2
3600 s

12s 31.3kW

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Non-mechanical Forms
of Work

Electrical work: The generalized force is the

voltage (the electrical potential) and the
generalized displacement is the electrical charge.
Magnetic work: The generalized force is the
magnetic field strength and the generalized
displacement is the total magnetic dipole
moment.
Electrical polarization work: The generalized
force is the electric field strength and the
generalized displacement is the polarization of
the medium.
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Electrical Work
Electrical work
N = electrical
charge flow

Electrical
power
When potential difference
and current change with
time

When potential
difference and current
remain constant

Electrical power in terms of

resistance R, current I, and
potential difference V.

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THE FIRST LAW OF

THERMODYNAMICS
The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy
principle) provides a basic to study the relationships among various
forms of energy and energy interactions.
The first law states that energy can be neither created nor
destroyed during a process; it can only change forms.
The First Law: For all adiabatic processes between two specified
states of a closed system, the net work done is the same regardless
of the nature of the closed system and the details of the process.

Energy
cannot be
created or
destroyed;
it can only
change
forms.

The increase in the energy of a

potato in an oven is equal to the
amount of heat transferred to it.
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The work
(electrical)
done on an
adiabatic
system is equal
to the increase
in the energy
of the system.
In the absence of any
work interactions, the
energy change of a
system is equal to the
net heat transfer.

The energy change of a

system during a process is
equal to the net work and
heat transfer between the

The work
(shaft) done
on an
adiabatic
system is
equal to the
increase in the
energy of the
system.

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Energy Balance
The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of
the system during a process is equal to the difference
between the total energy entering and the total energy
leaving the system during that process.

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Energy Change of a System,

Esystem

Energy can exist in numerous

forms such as internal, kinetic,
potential, electric, magnetic
and the sum constitute the
total energy of the system, E.
In the absence of electric and
magnetic effects,

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Mechanisms of Energy
Transfer, Ein and Eout

Heat transfer,
Q
Work
transfer, W
Mass flow, m

In the rate form,

For constant rates,

Energy
balance per
unit mass

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Energy balance for a cycle (closed

system)
Wnet,out = Wout - Win Qnet,in = Qin - Qout

For a cycle E =
0, thus Q = W.

The energy content of a

control volume can be
changed by mass flow as
well as heat and work
interactions.
A closed system does
not involve any mass
flow, only heat transfer
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and work.

PREPARED BY:
NORASMAH MOHAMMED MANSHOR
FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, UiTM SHAH ALAM.
0192368303/0355436333
norasmah@salam.uitm.edu.my

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