Logical Reasoning

An Introduction to Logic
And Fallacious Reasoning

Definitions Related to Logic

Logic - means correct reasoning. A logical text supports
statements with reasons and evidence. A text is illogical
when it does not provide reasons backed by evidence
(facts and examples).
Coherence - means to stick together. Reasoning is
coherent (or has coherence) when ideas stick together
because they are arranged in an order that makes sense
to the reader. The reasons or evidence must have a
connection; they cant just jump around.

Types of Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning A process of reasoning from known
facts to conclusions. Sometimes it can be thought of as
starting from a general statement that is accepted as true to a
specific statement that is therefore true.
Inductive Reasoning A process of reasoning that moves
from making observations to forming conclusions. It can also
be thought of as starting from specific examples and moving
toward a general statement. This is also called inference.
Fallacious Reasoning - false thinking or mistakes in logic.
Fallacious reasoning leads to incorrect conclusions.

Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning A process of reasoning from known facts
to conclusions, or from a general statement that is accepted as
true to a specific statement that is therefore true.
Deductive arguments often start with a categorical claim, which is
simply a statement that states a relationship between two
categories or events. Examples of categorical claims:

All cats are mammals.

No cats are reptiles
Some cats are long-haired mammals
Some cats are not long-haired mammals

You may see other words like never, sometimes, always, etc.
Categorical claims are important to be analyzed to determine if
they are true, and to see if they support a conclusion.

 Deductive Reasoning often uses a 3-step argument

called syllogism, introduced by the Greek philosopher
Aristotle.
This 3-step process was the beginning of modern
formal logic, or logical thinking.
Theory of Syllogism

Argument (Syllogism)
Example 1

All x has the characteristic A standard baseball game has

of y.
9 innings.
This thing is an x.

We watched a standard
baseball game.

Therefore, this x has the

characteristic of a y.

Therefore, that game had 9

innings.

Examples of Deductive Reasoning

More examples of deductive reasoning
using syllogism:
How would you change Example 2 to have a more standard categorical claim?

Argument (Syllogism)
Example 2

Argument (Syllogism) Example 3

The last day to register for the

Disney trip is June 15.

All people are mortal.

Joe missed the registration date. Jim Carey is a person.

Therefore, Joe will not be able to Therefore, Jim Carey is mortal.
register for the trip.

Inductive Reasoning
A process of reasoning that moves from making
observations to conclusions. This is also called
inference.
Inductive reasoning can also be thought of as theory
building.
Successful inductive reasoning depends on the quality of
your observations, or evidence.
If the quality of the observations are not good enough, or
if not enough observations have been made, inductive
reasoning may not be as dependable as deductive
reasoning.

Examples of Inductive Reasoning

While Example 2 below is not cohesive, inductive
reasoning is not useless. It is the basis of scientific
discovery and investigation, when used correctly.
Inductive Reasoning Example Inductive Reasoning Example
1
2
Tonya is seen walking from her
car to her home with a set of
golf clubs.

Every swan that my family and

I have ever seen is white.

Tonyas husband Jeff loves golf This swan is also white.

and tomorrow is his birthday.
(Inference)Tonya has bought
Jeff a set of golf clubs.

(Inference)All swans are white.

(are they?)

We Need Both Inductive and

Deductive Reasoning
In scientific discovery and in life, we use both types of
reasoning.
For example, we can use inductive reasoning to attempt
to make enough observations to come up with a theory
or conclusion.
Next, we can switch back to deductive reasoning using
our conclusion or theory (which is general).
Note that sometimes it is not possible to prove
something is always true, so the best we
can have is a theory.

Example of Using Both

Types of Reasoning
Example Using Both Types of Reasoning
A crime scene investigator gathers evidence, including
fingerprints or DNA. (Inductive)
It is known that fingerprints or DNA uniquely identify a
person. (Deductive)
Therefore, we know that the particular person was at
the crime scene. (Conclusion, based on both inductive
and deductive reasoning)

Fallacious Reasoning
Fallacious Reasoning means false thinking or
mistakes in logic.
May be based on: mistakes in logic or
incomplete information.
Fallacious reasoning leads to false conclusions.
Inductive reasoning is where we sometimes see
examples of fallacious reasoning (black swan).

Examples of Fallacious
Reasoning
Type and Definition

Examples

Hasty Generalization
Conclusions made from weak or
insufficient evidence

Your friend said the concert youre

attending would have extra security.
Obviously, this will be the safest
concert your city has ever had.

Stereotyping
Believing that all members of a
group share a certain
characteristic

All concerts are unsafe.

More Examples of
Fallacious Reasoning
Type and Definition

Examples

Personal Attack (Name Calling, or

Ad Hominem) Attacking the
person making the argument,
rather than the argument itself.

Your parents dont want you to go

to the concert. They obviously
dont know anything about
anything.

False Dilemma (Either/Or)

The assumption that a problem or
situation has only one possible
cause or resolution when there
may be several.

If your parents dont let you go to

the concert, then they dont trust
you.

Yet More Examples of

Fallacious Reasoning
Type and Definition

Examples

False Analogy
Relying only on comparisons
to prove a point rather than
arguing deductively and
inductively

Education is like cake; a small amount

tastes sweet, but eat too much and your
teeth will rot out. Likewise, more than
two years of education is bad for a
student.

Appeal to Fear
Using a claim that is intended
to produce fear instead of
being actual evidence to
support the claim.

You know, Professor Smith, I really

need to get an A in this class. I'd like to
stop by later to discuss my grade. I'll be
in your building anyways, visiting my
father. He's your dean, by the way."

Logical Arguments
A logical argument is a group of statements, called
premises, that are claimed to provide support for, or are
reasons to believe, a conclusion.
Note that these statements or premises can be either
true or false.
To reach a logical conclusion, all premises or statements
leading up to the conclusion must support it.
Some premises may be categorical claims, such as
those presented earlier.

Examples of Arguments
Argument 1:
(Premise) Isaac can fix anything electric.
(Premise) The electric switch in my lamp
is broken.
(Conclusion)Isaac can fix my lamp.
What type of reasoning is this?

Logic Problems
Argument 2:
Lars needs a notebook for some of his
classes.
Lars has three notebooks.
Conclusion: Lars is in three classes.
What type of reasoning is this?

Logic Problems
Argument 3:
(Premise) I have 5 dogs for pets.
(Premise) Three of them learned to lie down and
roll over.
(Premise)Three of my dogs were Scotties and
two were Collies.
Conclusion: My collies never learned to lie down
and roll over.

What type of reasoning is this?

Logic Problems Contd

Argument 4:
(Premise)None of Barrys sisters can do a
back dive. (This is a categorical claim)
(Premise) Lisa can do a back dive
Conclusion: Lisa is not Barrys sister.

What type of reasoning is this?

Logic Problems, Contd

Argument 5:
Sometimes Joanna rides her bike when
she goes to the store. (Categorical claim)
I saw Joanne riding her bike.
Conclusion: Joanne was going to the store.

What type of reasoning is this?