SYNTHESIS
Overview
A) TYPES OF RNA
B) TRANSCRIPTION
C) TRANSLATION
D) The lac OPERON
A) TYPES OF RNA
mRNA is single-stranded
formed on a single strand of
DNA by the process of
transcription in the nucleus
tRNA
Function: carry
amino acids present
in the cytoplasm to
the ribosome
tRNA
Structure:
the single
strand of a
tRNA molecule
is wound into a
double helix
tRNA molecule
resembles a
clover leaf.
anticodo
n
5-end always
ends in guanine
Anticodon:
site of base pairing with mRNA
unique for each species of tRNA
GCA
GC C
codon
codon
G CU
codon
tRNA
rRNA
Synthesised by
genes inside
nucleolus called
nucleolar
organiser
rRNA
Location of rRNA:
cytoplasm, associated with protein
molecules which together form
ribosomes
Function of ribosome:
polypeptide formation
Charged tRNA
molecules form
Overview
A) TYPES OF RNA
B)
TRANSCRIPTION
C) TRANSLATION
D) The lac OPERON
RNA Polymerase
catalyses synthesis of
RNA
Prokaryotes:
one RNA polymerase that
produces:
mRNA, tRNA and rRNA
Eukaryotes:
three different RNA polymerases
with distinct roles;
RNA polymerase II is responsible
for mRNA production [just
remember RNA polymerase]
RNA
polymerase
Nucleotides are
added ONLY at
the 3 end.
Transcription produces:
mRN
tRNA
rRNA
A
Promoter
Transcriptionunit
Initiationsite
RNApolymerase
Transcription
occurs in
three
phases:
DNA
Terminationsite
Initiation
TemplatestrandofDNA
Unwound
RNA
DNA
transcript
Rewound
2
Elongation
DNA
RNA
transcript
3
Termination
5
3
CompletedRNAtranscript
The promoter
a special sequence of DNA to which
RNA polymerase binds very tightly
the transcription of a gene begins at
the promoter
where to start
2
which strand of
DNA to read
3 the direction to
Promoter
RNA
polymerase
RNA
polymerase
RNA polymerase:
- opens the DNA strands
- synthesizes an RNA complementary to the
template
What is a nucleoside
triphosphate?
PostTranscriptio
nal
Modificatio
ns
Occur in
the
nucleus
The posttranscriptional
modifications involve:
1. modification of both
ends of pre-mRNA
2. removal of introns
At the 5 end
a G-cap is added
(modified
guanosine
triphosphate)
At the 3 end
a poly A tail is
added
(100 to 300 adenine
nucleotides )
The G-cap
is added during transcription
role:
1. facilitates binding
to ribosome
2. protects it from
being digested by
ribonucleases
AAUAAA:
acts as a signal
for an enzyme to
cut the pre-mRNA
Immediately after
this cleavage,
another enzyme adds
a poly A sequence
The posttranscriptional
modifications involve:
1. modification of both ends of
pre-mRNA
2. removal of
introns
Pre-mRNA
Mature-mRNA
[processed
mRNA]
introns - sections
that do not code
for the protein
Removal of introns.
Alternative splicing
exons can be linked together in different ways
70% of human genes are alternatively spliced
on average, a given gene gives rise
to4alternatively spliced variants - encoding a
total of90-100,000proteins which differ in their
sequence and therefore, in their activities
a) Where exactly
in the cell do
the following
processes take
place?
i) Transcription
Nucleus
ii) Translation
Cytoplasm
c)
of chain C.
Overview
A) TYPES OF RNA
B) TRANSCRIPTION
C)
TRANSLATION
D) The lac OPERON
ribosome
What happens to
mRNA after the
polypeptide is
formed?
mRNA is
degraded
by enzymes.
Polyribosome
or Polysome:
several
ribosomes
attached to a
molecule of
mRNA
small subunit :
1 rRNA
molecule
33 protein
molecules
A large subunit :
3 molecules of
rRNA
Chloroplast
Mitochondrion
tRNA
mRNA
3 sites
2 sites
Translation
occurs on
ribosomes
in three
steps:
Ribosome moves
towards the 3 end
Breaks bond
between tRNA
in P site and its
amino acid
2
The ribosome
subunits
dissociate.
Enzymes
degrade mRNA
Translation
Large
subunit
P
Site
A
Site
mRNA
A U G
Small subunit
A C U U C G
Initiation
aa2
aa1
2-tRNA
1-tRNA
anticodon
hydrogen
bonds
U A C
A U G
codon
G A U
C
A C U U C G A
mRNA
Elongation
peptide bond
aa3
aa1
aa2
3-tRNA
1-tRNA
anticodon
hydrogen
bonds
U A C
A U G
codon
2-tRNA
G A A
G A U
C U A C U U C G A
mRNA
aa1
peptide bond
aa3
aa2
1-tRNA
3-tRNA
U A C
(leaves)
2-tRNA
A U G
G A A
G A U
C U A C U U C G A
mRNA
aa1
peptide bonds
aa4
aa2
aa3
4-tRNA
2-tRNA
A U G
3-tRNA
G C U
G A U G A A
C U A C U U C G A A C U
mRNA
peptide bonds
aa1
aa4
aa2
aa3
2-tRNA
4-tRNA
G A U
(leaves)
3-tRNA
A U G
G C U
G A A
A C U U C G A A C U
mRNA
peptide bonds
aa1
aa5
aa2
aa3
aa4
5-tRNA
U G A
3-tRNA
G C
4-tRNA
G A A G C U
A C U U C G A A C U
mRNA
peptide bonds
aa1
aa5
aa2
aa3
aa4
5-tRNA
U G A
3-tRNA
G A
G C
A
U
4-tRNA
C U
G C U
U C G A A C U
mRNA
aa4
aa3
aa2
aa5
Termination
aa199
aa200
primary
structure
of a protein
aa1
200-tRNA
AC
mRNA
C A
U G
terminator
or stop
codon
U U U A G
End Product
The end product of protein
synthesis is a primary
structure of a protein.
A sequence of amino acid
bonded together by peptide
bonds.
aa5
aa2
aa1
aa3
aa4
aa199
aa200
Translation
start
codon
mRNA
A U G G G C U C C A U C G G C G C A U A A
codon 1
protein methionine
codon 2
codon 3
glycine
serine
codon 4
isoleucine
codon 5
codon 6
glycine
alanine
codon 7
stop
codon
aa2
aa3
peptide bonds
aa4
aa5
aa6
Polypeptide folds
as it emerges
from the ribosome
What determines
how a protein folds?
Post-translational
modifications
1.
2.
3.
4.
Amino acids
mRNA
tRNA
ribosome
Sickle-Cell Anaemia
Haemoglobin
has more than
300 amino acids
A single base
change in the
gene for
haemoglobin
results in a lethal
condition
Essay Titles
1. Write an account about protein
synthesis in eukaryotic cells. [MAY, 2002]
2. Review the process of protein synthesis
in living systems. [MAY, 2008]
3. Trace the sequence of events through
which the information in a gene
eventually leads to the formation of a
protein. [MAY, 2009]
Overview
A) TYPES OF RNA
B) TRANSCRIPTION
C) TRANSLATION
D) The lac
OPERON
Glucose
used up
Lactose
used up
Enzymes were
being made to
metabolise lactose.
LACTOSE present:
Lactose is an INDUCER
(a compound that
stimulates synthesis of a
protein)
2. galactosidase
- breaks lactose
galactosi
dase
permeas
e
to glucose +
galactose
Operons in E. coli
75 different operons controlling 250
structural genes have been identified
for E. coli
only the lac operon is in syllabus
Promoter (plac)
binding site for
RNA
Operator (o)
binding site for
repressor
No transcription
Promoter
Operator
Structuralgenes
Inducibilitygene
[Promoterforigene
isNOTshown]
Terminator
i
Transcription
mRNA
Translation
Repressor-protein
The
repressor
molecule is
made all
the time
LactoseAbsent
i
Repressor
molecule binds
to operator (O)
Repressor-protein
RNA
polymerase
Repressor-protein
RNA polymerase
cannot bind to
promoter (P)
Lactose Present
i
mRNA
Lactose Present
i
Translation results in
enzyme formation
mRNA is
polycistroni
c
so all 3
enzymes are
formed
together
SUMMARY
LACTOSE
absent
LACTOSE
present
Monocistronic vs polycistronic
mRNA
Polycistronic mRNA: in
prokaryotes
contains the genetic information to translate more
than one protein chain (polypeptide).
Monocistronic mRNA in
eukaryotes
contains the genetic information to
translate only a single protein chain
(polypeptide)
THE END