Earthquakes

EarthquakesandPlateTectonics
Earthquakesarecausedbyplateinter
actionsalongtectonicplateboundaries
Plateboundariesareidentifiedand
definedbyearthquakes
Earthquakesoccurateachofthethree
typesofplateboundaries:divergent,
transform,andconvergent
Atdivergentboundaries,tensionalforces
produceshallowfocusquakesonnormalfaults
Attransformboundaries,shearforcesproduce
shallowfocusquakesalongstrikeslipfaults
Atconvergentboundaries,compressional
forcesproduceshallowtodeepfocusquakes
alongreversefaults

WorldEarthquakeDistribution
Mostearthquakesoccurinnarrow
geographicbeltswhichmarktectonic
plateboundaries
Mostimportantconcentrationsin
circumPacificandMediterranean
Himalayanbelts
Shallowfocusearthquakescommon
alongthecrestsofmidoceanicridges
Nearlyallintermediateanddeepfocus
earthquakesoccurinBenioffzones
inclinedseismicactivityassociatedwith
descendingoceanicplateatsubductionzones)

Earthquakes
Anearthquakeisatremblingorshakingofthe
groundcausedbythesuddenreleaseofenergy
storedintherocksbeneathEarthssurface
Energyisreleasedduringearthquakesinthe
formofseismicwaves
Elasticreboundtheoryearthquakesarea
suddenreleaseofstrainprogressivelystoredin
rocksthatbenduntiltheyfinallybreakand
movealongafault

Tohoku Earthquake - March 11, 2011

3 foreshocks
between
magnitude
6.0 and 7.2
Main shock
9.0
Hundreds of
aftershocks

Juan de Fuca

SeismicWaves
Focus(orhypocenter)thepointofinitial
breakageandmovementalongafault,
whereseismicwavesoriginate
EpicenterpointonEarthssurface
directlyabovethefocus
Twotypesofseismicwavesareproduced
duringearthquakes
Bodywavestraveloutwardfromthefocusin
alldirectionsthroughEarthsinterior
SurfacewavestravelalongEarthssurface
awayfromtheepicenter

BodyWaves
Pwavecompressional(longitudinal)body
waveinwhichrockvibratesbackandforth
paralleltothedirectionofwavepropagation
Fast(4to7kms/sec)wavethatisthefirstor
primarywavetoarriveatrecordingstation
followingearthquake
Passthroughsolidsandfluids

Swaveshearing(transverse)bodywave
inwhichrockvibratesbackandforth
perpendiculartothedirectionofwave
propagation
Slower(2to5km/sec)wavethatisthe
secondarywavetoarriveatrecording
stationfollowingearthquake
Passthroughsolidsonly

SurfaceWaves
Slowesttypeofseismicwaves
producedbyearthquakes
Lovewavessidetosidemotion
ofthegroundsurface
Canttravelthroughfluids

Rayleighwavesgroundmoves
inanellipticalpathoppositethe
directionofwavemotion
Extremelydestructivetobuildings

Assessing Earthquake
Hazards
Measuring earthquakes as they
happen
Looking for evidence in the rock
record

MeasuringEarthquakes
Seismometersusedtomeasureseismicwaves

LocatingEarthquakes
Traveltimecurveusedtodeterminedistancetofocus
basedontimebetweenfirstPandSwavearrivals

LocatingEarthquakes

MeasuringtheSizeofEarthquakes
Earthquakesizemeasuredtwowaysintensityand
magnitude
Intensityameasureoftheeffectsanearthquake
produces(onbothstructuresandpeople)

Intensity Cypress St Overpass

Oakland, CA

1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake

42 people died when the overpass collapsed
Section over bay mud collapsed due to stronger
shaking
Engineering issue that should have been addressed

MeasuringtheSizeofEarthquakes
Sizeofearthquakesmeasuredintwowaysintensityandmagnitude
Magnitudeisameasureofthe
amountofenergyreleasedby
anearthquake
Richterscale

Momentmagnitudemore
objectivemeasureofenergy
releasedbyamajorearthquake
Usesrockstrength,surfacearea
offaultrupture,andamount
ofmovement
Smallerearthquakesaremorecommonthanlargerones

Chile vs Haiti
Chili Magnitude 8.8,
Intensity >VIII,
Subduction Zone
Haiti Magnitude 7.0,
intensity >VIII, Strike
Slip
Proximity to EQ
Engineering

Haiti killing over 200k,

injuring over 300k
Chili 600 died

AssessingFutureHazards
LocationandSizeof
EarthquakesintheU.S.
Earthquakesoccurthroughoutthe
U.S.,butaremuchmorecommonin
thewesternstatesandAlaska
Largestseismicrisksorhazardsexist
neartheplateboundaryalongtheU.S.
Pacificcoast(e.g.,SanAndreasfault),
andaroundNewMadrid,Missouri
Seismicriskdeterminedbasedon
theassumptionthatlargefuture
earthquakeswilloccurwherethey
haveoccurredinthepast

Earthquakelocationssince1977

EarthquakePredictionand
SeismicRisk
Accurateandconsistentshortterm
earthquakepredictionnotyetpossible,
threemethodsassistindetermining
probabilitythatanearthquakewilloccur:
Measurementofchangesinrockproperties,
suchasmagnetism,electricalresistivity,
seismicvelocity,andporosity,whichmay
serveasprecursorstoearthquakes
Studiesoftheslipratealongfaultzones
Paleoseismologystudiesthatdeterminewhereand
whenearthquakeshaveoccurredandtheirsize
Averageintervalsbetweenlargeearthquakesand
thetimesincethelastoneoccurredcanalsobe
usedtoassesstherisk(overagivenperiodoftime)
thatalargequakewilloccur

Earthquakes in the Rock Record

Paleoseismology
Evidence of Shaking Dead Sea 13 Seismite
Layers

Earthquakes in the Rock Record

Paleoseismology

Fault carps
from ground
rupture

EffectsofEarthquakes
(Primary)
Earthquakesproduceseveral
typesofeffects,allofwhichcan
causelossofpropertyandhuman
life
Groundmotionisthefamiliar
tremblingandshakingoftheland
duringanearthquake
Cantopplebuildingsandbridges

Permanentdisplacementoftheland
surfacecanalsooccur,leaving
fracturesandscarps

Effects of Earthquakes Secondary

Fire is a problem just
after earthquakes
because of broken gas
and water mains and
fallen electrical wires
Landslides can be
triggered by ground
shaking, particularly in
larger quakes
Liquefaction occurs
when water-saturated
soil or sediment
sloshes like a liquid
during a quake

Tsunami
Tsunami(seismicseawaves)
verylargeseawavescausedby
suddenupwardordownward
movementoftheseafloorduring
submarineearthquakes
generallyproducedbymagnitude
8+earthquakes(greatearthquakes
e.g.,9.3Indonesia,2004)
Mayalsobegeneratedbylarge
undersealandslidesorvolcanic
explosions
Travelacrossopenoceanatspeeds
of>700km/hr
Reachgreatheightsincoastalareas
withgentlyslopingseafloorand
funnelshapedbays

Minimizing the Risks from

Earthquakes

Planning

Location of faults
Character of Faults
Geologic materials and
their response to shaking

650,000 died from EQ and

assoc hazards in the 1st
decade of the 21st
century.
Bam, Iran World Heritage
Site
6.5 EQ 2003

Minimizing the Risks from

Earthquakes
Regulations Building Codes