Solar energy
Photovoltaic (solar)
panel
Sources: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pv_systems.html
http://thomashawk.com/hello/209/1017/1024/Staring%20at%20the%20Sun.jpg
Source: http://www.ez2c.de/ml/solar_land_area/
Solar energy.
Solar energy can be used in 2 ways:
- Passive solar energy: Direct use for
heating/ lighting/ drying/ ventilation
purposes.
- Active solar energy: Conversion to
electricity with the aid of special
instruments.
Solar lighting
Daylighting: The history
of lighting is dominated
by the use of natural light.
Hybrid solar lighting is
an active solar method of
providing interior
illumination. HSL systems
collect sunlight using
focusing mirrors that track
the Sun and use optical
fibers to transmit it inside
the building to
supplement conventional
lighting.
Solar thermal
Water heating: Solar hot
water systems use
sunlight to heat water.
Heating, cooling and
ventilation: Thermal
mass is any material that
can be used to store heat
heat from the Sun in
the case of solar energy.
Common thermal mass
materials include stone,
cement and water.
Solar thermal..
Water treatment: The method
involves evaporation,
distillation and condensation
process.
Solar water disinfection
(SODIS) involves exposing
water-filled plastic polyethylene
terephthalate (PET) bottles to
sunlight for several hours.
Cooking: Solar cookers use
sunlight for cooking, drying and
pasteurization.
And,
How is electricity generated ?
Photovoltaic
Uses photovoltaic cells
that absorb direct
sunlight.
Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_energ
http://www.fplenergy.com/portfolio/solar/facts.shtml#glance
Photovoltaic method
Light energy
Silicon-based
solar cell
Widespread
Expensive to manufacture
Dye-sensitized (nano)
Newer, less proven
Inexpensive to
manufacture
Flexible
Dye-sensitized
solar cell
Chlorophyll molecules
absorb blue and red light,
but reflect green light
Source: http://ebiomedia.com/prod/cyclops/images/image004.jpg
Light
cells
Transition from highest
occupied molecular orbital
(HOMO) to lowest
unoccupied molecular
orbital (LUMO)
In single-crystal silicon
solar cells
Transition to conduction
band (excited states)
from valence band
(ground states)
Source: Original Images
Sources: http://www.imo.uhasselt.be/polytech/images/zonnecel1.jpg
http://www.norfolksolar.co.uk/img/system.gif
Traditional
Expensive
Need TLC
Long return on
investment
Easy availability.
The photovoltaic cells which constitute most solar energy systems
are usually made of silicon, one of the most common minerals found
on Earth. That means that creating the components is extremely
easy, doesn't require mining or drilling in a dangerous locale to
produce
Wind energy
WINDMILL DESIGN
A Windmill captures
wind energy and then
uses a generator to
convert it to electrical
energy.
The design of a
windmill is an integral
part of how efficient it
will be.
When designing a
windmill, one must
decide on the size of
the turbine, and the
size of the generator.
Wind Turbines:
Number of Blades:
Most common design is the three-bladed turbine. The most important reason is
the stability of the turbine. A rotor with an odd number of rotor blades (and at least
three blades) can be considered to be similar to a disc when calculating the dynamic
properties of the machine.
A rotor with an even number of blades will give stability problems for a machine
with a stiff structure. The reason is that at the very moment when the uppermost
blade bends backwards, because it gets the maximum power from the wind, the
lowermost blade passes into the wind shade in front of the tower.
Orientation
Turbines can be categorized into two overarching
classes based on the orientation of the rotor
Vertical Axis
Horizontal Axis
Disadvantages
Components can be
mounted at ground level
Ease of service
Lighter weight towers
Intermediate
(10-250 kW)
Village Power
Hybrid Systems
Distributed
Power
Wind Energy:
The Technology
Swept Area: A = R2
Area of the circle swept
by the rotor (m2).
Some images
Jacobs Turbine
1920 - 1960
Smith-Putnam Turbine
Vermont, 1940's
Windfarm 2
Off-Shore Windfarms
Middelgrunden
45%
in 2007!!!
Key Environmental
Issues facing Wind
Power
FACT:
500
Glass Windows
174
Electric Transmission
Line Collisions
House cats
100
100
Hunting
75
Automobiles
1
67
Agriculture
Communication Towers
1.5
0.001
Electrocution
0.000809106
Wind Turbines
100
200
300
400
500
600
Attractiveness.
Large windmills generate more electricity,
but move slowly and so have less
attractiveness among people.
Small windmills( fast moving) have more
attractiveness but generate less electricity.
Tax Credits
Whenever, tax incentives have been
removed, interest of investors has steeply
decreased.
Tax incentives increase government
expenditure and lead to fiscal deficit.
Renewable energy.
Capital cost.
Capital cost of
installing a wind
turbine is very high.
Land acquisitions by
the governments may
also create problems.
Nuclear energy
Brief History
Electricity generation.
Electricity can be generated from nuclear
energy by 2 methods:
- Nuclear fission.
- Nuclear fusion.
Nuclear fission
Nuclear fission
The nuclei of heavy atoms are
split under bombardment by
neutrons.
Mining
Yellowcake
Meanwhile, the uranium
solution is filtered, and then
goes through a solvent
extraction process that
includes kerosene and
ammonia to purify the uranium
solution. After purification the
uranium is put into precipitation
tanksthe result is a product
commonly called yellowcake.
Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html
and
http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf
Transportation
In the final processes the
yellow cake is heated to
800Celcius which makes a
dark green powder which is
98% U3O8. The dark green
powder is put into 200 liter
drums and loaded into
shipping containers and are
shipped overseas to fuel
nuclear power plants.
Sources: http://www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html
and
http://www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diagram.pdf
Mining Leaders
Production in 2000
Canada
10,682
Australia
7,578
Niger
2,895
Namibia
2,714
Uzbekistan
2,350
Russia (est)
2,000
Kazakhstan
USA
company
tonnes U
Cameco
7218
1,752
Cogema
6643
1,456
WMC
3693
ERA
3564
South Africa
878
China (est)
500
Ukraine (est)
500
Navoi
2400
Czech Republic
500
Rossing
2239
India (est)
200
France
319
KazAtomProm
2018
others
422
Priargunsky
2000
Total world
34,746
Source: http://www.world-
Conversion
Source: http://www.gat.com/converdyn/dfcp.html
Enrichment
Fuel Fabrication
Source: http://www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc.htm
Transportation
Nuclear fission
When a sufficient amount of
fissionable material is brought
together chain reaction occurs
Nuclear fission
Splitting atoms
and releasing a
tremendous
amount of
heat.
Nuclear fission
Approximately 20,000 times as
much heat and energy is
released from uranium fuels as
from an equivalent amount of
coal.
Reactor Types
PRWPressurized Water Reactordoes not boil, but uses the pressure
of the water to heat a secondary source of water that generates electricity.
Most popular (accounts for 65% of reactors world wide). Considered a
light water reactor.
BRWBoiling Water Reactorboils water (coolant) that makes steam to
turn turbines. Conducive to internal contamination. Also considered a light
water reactor.
RBMKGraphite-moderated pressure tube boiling-water reactor similar to
BWR but uses graphite and oxygen. Complex and difficult to examine.
CANDUCanadian Deuterium UraniumDoesnt use enriched fuel. Has
lots of tubes and internal contamination issues.
MagnoxGas cooled reactor. Cooled with carbon dioxide or helium, and
uses natural uranium. (UK and France).
AGRAdvanced Gas-cooledalso cooled with carbon dioxide or helium.
Uses enriched uranium. (UK).
Fast Breederhigh temperature gas reactor. Uses U235, U238, and
Plutonium 239. Very dangerous because it uses liquid sodium in the
primary circuit and in inflammable with air and explosive with water.
Source: www.world-
Nuclear fusion
Nuclear forces
There are two opposing forces in the nucleus:
Electrostatic (+ve proton repels +ve proton)
Strong force (nucleons attract each other)
The strong force is stronger, but acts over a shorter
distance. Adding more nucleons is favored with small
nuclei but not with large
E.g. adding a proton to a small vs. large nucleus
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion is combining together
the atoms are fused together
rather than split apart
possibilities for nuclear fusion
are much greater than those
for nuclear fission.
Tokamak Technology:
Magnetic Confinement
Efforts to control fusion first relied on the
principle of magnetic confinement, in which
a powerful magnetic field traps a hot
deuterium-tritium plasma long enough for
fusion to begin.
In November 1997, researchers exploiting the magnetic
confinement approach created a fusion reaction that
produced 65 percent as much energy as was fed into it to
initiate the reaction. This milestone was achieved in England
at the Joint European Torus, a tokamak facility--a doughnutshaped vessel in which the plasma is magnetically confined.
A commercial fusion reactor would have to produce far more
energy than went into it to start or maintain the reaction.
Developments
Nuclear fusion reactor is under construction at
the Cadarache site in southern France.
It will be operational in 2011 AD.
Sources:
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/4629239.stm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITER
Nuclear bombs.
Reactor mishandling.
Waste dumping (in case of fission energy).
Life of nuclear reactors is only 40-50
years.
Hiroshimabefore
Source:
http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/1259a.gif
Hiroshimaafter
Source:
http://www.aracnet.com/~pdxavets/1260a.gif
Chernobyl
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