Chapter 4
Learning Objectives
1. Culture and cross-cultural risk
2. Key concepts of culture
3. The role of culture in international business
4. Cultural metaphors, stereotypes, and idioms
5. Interpretations of culture
6. Subjective versus objective dimensions of culture
7. Language as a key dimension of culture
8. Contemporary issues in culture
9. Overcoming cross-cultural risk: Managerial
guidelines
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Key Concepts
Culture: The learned, shared, and enduring orientation patterns in a
society. People demonstrate their culture through values, ideas,
attitudes, behaviors, and symbols.
Cross-cultural risk: A situation or event
where a cultural miscommunication puts some human value at stake.
It arises in environments characterized by unfamiliar languages and
unique value systems, beliefs, and behaviors
Kebudayaan: Belajar, berkongsi, dan berkekalan corak orientasi
dalam masyarakat. Orang menunjukkan budaya mereka melalui nilainilai, idea-idea, sikap, tingkah laku, dan simbol.?
Risiko silang budaya: Satu keadaan atau kejadian di mana salah
faham budaya meletakkan beberapa nilai manusia yang
dipertaruhkan?. Ia timbul dalam persekitaran yang mempunyai ciri-ciri
bahasa yang tidak dikenali dan sistem nilai yang unik, kepercayaan,
dan tingkah laku
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Managerial Orientations
Ethnocentric orientation: Using our own culture as the standard for
judging other cultures
Polycentric orientation: A mindset in which the manager develops a
greater affinity for the country in which he or she works than for the home
country.
Geocentric orientation: A global mindset in which the manager is able to
understand a business or market without regard to national boundaries.
Managers should strive for a geocentric orientation
Orientasi etnosentrik: Menggunakan budaya kita sendiri sebagai
standard untuk menilai budaya lain
Orientasi Polycentric: A minda di mana pengurus membangunkan
pertalian yang lebih besar untuk negara di mana dia bekerja berbanding
negara asal.
Orientasi Geocentric:. A minda global di mana pengurus dapat
memahami perniagaan atau pasaran tanpa mengambil kira sempadan
negara ?? Pengurus harus berusaha untuk orientasi geocentric
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Culture Is
Not right or wrong It is relative. There is no cultural absolute.
Different nationalities simply perceive the world differently.
Not about individual behavior It is about groups. It is a collective
phenomenon of shared values and meanings.
Not inherited It derives from the social environment. We are not born
with a shared set of values and beliefs; we acquire them as we grow up.
Tidak betul atau salah - Ia adalah relatif. Tiada mutlak budaya. Bangsa
yang berbeza hanya melihat dunia secara berbeza.
Bukan tentang tingkah laku individu - Ia adalah mengenai kumpulan.
Ia adalah satu fenomena kolektif nilai-nilai bersama dan makna.
Tidak diwarisi - Ia berasal daripada persekitaran sosial. Kami tidak
dilahirkan dengan set nilai dan nilai dan kepercayaan; kita memperoleh
mereka seperti yang kita membesar.
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Culture is Learned
Socialization: The process of learning the rules and behavioral patterns
appropriate to one's society.
Acculturation: The process of adjusting and adapting to a culture other than
one's own; commonly experienced by expatriate workers.
Culture is like an iceberg above the surface, certain characteristics are
visible; below the surface is a massive base of assumptions, attitudes, and
values that strongly influence decision-making, relationships, and other
dimensions of business.
Sosialisasi: Proses pembelajaran peraturan dan corak tingkah laku yang
sesuai untuk masyarakat seseorang. ?
Pembudayaan: Proses menyesuaikan diri dan menyesuaikan diri dengan
budaya yang lain dari diri sendiri; biasa dialami oleh pekerja-pekerja asing.
Budaya adalah seperti aisberg - di atas permukaan, ciri-ciri tertentu yang
boleh dilihat; di bawah permukaan adalah tempat yang besar-besaran
andaian, sikap, dan nilai yang kuat mempengaruhi pembuatan keputusan,
hubungan, dan dimensi lain dari perniagaan.
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Culture
as an
Iceberg
SOURCES: Geert Hofstede, Cultures Consequences (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1980); Boye De Mente, The Mexican Mind
(Beverly Hills, CA: Phoenix Books, 2011); Lucila
Ortiz,
A 2014
Primer
for Spanish
Language, Culture and Economics
Copyright
Pearson
Education
(Bloomington, IN: Xlibris, 2011)
National Culture
In firms with a strong organizational culture, it is hard to determine where the corporate
influence begins and the national influence ends.
The tendency to attribute all differences to national culture is simplistic.
Interpretations of Culture
Cultural Metaphors refer to a distinctive tradition or institution strongly associated with a
society; a guide to deciphering attitudes, values, and behaviors.
American football represents systematic planning, strategy, leadership, and struggling against
rivals
The Swedish stuga (a sumcottage) represents the love
of nature and desire for individualism in Sweden.
The Spanish bullfight reflects the importance of ritual, style, courage, and pride in Spain.
Stereotaip adalah generalisasi yang mungkin atau mungkin tidak berdasarkan fakta
dan sering terlepas pandang sebenar, perbezaan yang lebih dalam.
Orang-orang dari Amerika Syarikat yang dikatakan:
- Bertengkar dan agresif, berbanding Jepun yang cenderung untuk ditempah dan
rendah hati.
- Pencinta individualistik kebebasan peribadi, berbanding Cina yang cenderung untuk
menjadi berorientasikan kumpulan.
- Keusahawanan, berbanding Arab Arab yang menggunakan kaedah masa dihormati
untuk mendapatkan perkara yang dilakukan.
- Langsung dan berminat dengan pulangan segera, berbanding Mexico yang melabur
masa dalam hubungan bangunan.
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Ethical Connections
Ethical values vary by culture. Consider two scenarios given to students.
In scenario one, a car salesman failed to inform his superiors about a serious engine problem
of a car he had received as trade-in on a new car sale.
In scenario two, a dealership neglected to fully repair a car transmission under warranty in the
hope of securing lucrative repair work after the warranty expired.
Students from China and Russia felt relatively little harm had been done in these scenarios.
Students from Finland and South Korea judged the scenarios to be unethical.
Power distance describes how a society deals with inequalities in power that exist among
people.
High power distance societies exhibit big gaps between the weak and powerful; in firms, top
management tends to be autocratic, giving little autonomy to lower-level employees. Examples:
Guatemala, Malaysia, Philippines, and several Middle East countries.
Low power distance societies have small gaps between the weak and powerful. Firms tend
toward flat organizational structures, with relatively equal relations between managers and
workers. For example, Scandinavian countries instituted various systems to ensure
socioeconomic equality.
Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which people can tolerate risk and uncertainty
in their lives.
High uncertainty avoidance societies create institutions to minimize risk and ensure security.
Firms emphasize stable careers and regulate worker actions. Decisions are made slowly.
Examples: Belgium, France, Japan
In low uncertainty avoidance societies, managers are relatively entrepreneurial and
comfortable with risk. Firms make decisions quickly. People are comfortable changing jobs.
Examples: Ireland, Jamaica, U.S.
Nilai mewakili penghakiman seseorang tentang apa yang baik atau buruk, boleh
diterima atau tidak boleh diterima, penting atau tidak penting, dan normal atau
tidak normal.
Sikap dan keutamaan dibangunkan berdasarkan nilai-nilai dan adalah sama
dengan pendapat, kecuali bahawa sikap sering tidak sedar diadakan dan
mungkin tidak mempunyai asas yang rasional.
Examples
Values common to Japan, North America, and Northern Europe include hard work,
punctuality, and wealth acquisition.
Perceptions of Time
Time dictates expectations about planning, scheduling, profit streams, and what constitutes
tardiness in arriving for work and meetings.
Monochronic -- A rigid orientation to time in which the individual is focused on schedules,
punctuality, time as a resource, time is linear, time is money. For example, people in the
U.S. are hurried and impatient.
Polychronic -- A flexible, non-linear orientation to time in which the individual takes a longterm perspective; time is elastic, long delays are tolerated before taking action. Punctuality is
relatively unimportant. Relationships are valued. Examples: Africa, Latin America, Asia.
Masa menetapkan jangkaan mengenai perancangan, penjadualan, sungai keuntungan, dan
apa yang merupakan pengalaman diperlukan dalam pengiraan untuk kerja-kerja dan
mesyuarat.
Monokronik - Orientasi tegar ke semasa di mana individu yang memberi tumpuan kepada
jadual, ketepatan masa, masa sebagai sumber, masa adalah linear, "masa adalah wang".
Sebagai contoh, orang di Amerika Syarikat adalah tergesa-gesa dan tidak sabar.
Polikronik - A fleksibel, orientasi bukan linear ke semasa di mana individu mengambil
perspektif jangka panjang; masa anjal, penangguhan yang lama boleh bersabar sebelum
mengambil tindakan. Ketepatan masa adalah agak tidak penting. Hubungan dinilai. Contoh:
Afrika, Amerika Latin, Asia.
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Religion
A system of common beliefs or attitudes regarding a being or system of thought
that people consider sacred, divine, or the highest truth; and the associated moral
values, traditions, and rituals.
Influences culture, and therefore business and consumer behavior.
Example: The protestant work ethic emphasizes hard work, individual
achievement, and a sense that people can control their environment- the
underpinnings for the development of capitalism.
Satu sistem kepercayaan yang sama atau sikap mengenai makhluk atau
sistem pemikiran yang orang menganggap suci, ilahi, atau kebenaran
yang paling tinggi?; dan yang berkaitan moral nilai-nilai, tradisi, dan ritual.?
Pengaruh budaya, dan oleh itu perniagaan dan tingkah laku pengguna.
Contoh: 'etika kerja Protestan' menekankan kerja keras, pencapaian
individu, dan rasa yang orang boleh mengawal environment- mereka yang
asas bagi perkembangan kapitalisme.
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World Religions
World Religions
Nokia melancarkan telefon mudah alih yang menunjukkan Islam hala tuju
ke arah Mekah, tempat suci Islam.
Heineken melancarkan minuman
malt tanpa alkohol Fayrouz.
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Bahasa Inuit (yang penduduk asli Kanada) mempunyai beberapa perkataan yang
berbeza untuk "salji," Bahasa Inggeris mempunyai hanya satu, dan Aztec di
Amerika Selatan menggunakan batang perkataan yang sama untuk salji, ais, dan
sejuk.
Perkataan Jepun muzukashii boleh diterjemahkan sebagai "sukar", "halus," atau
"Saya tidak mahu berbincang". Dalam rundingan perniagaan ia biasanya
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bermaksud "ia keluar daripada soalan."
Literal Translation
Use Parker Pen,
avoid pregnancy!
Pepsi in China
Fisher Body in
Body by Fisher
Belgium (car
exteriors)
Salem cigarettes in Salem-feeling
Japan
Free
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Corpse by Fisher
Smoking Salem
makes your mind feel
free and empty
Meaning Differences
between U.S. and British English
Word
Meaning in U.S.
English
Meaning in British
English
Redundant
repetitive
Scheme
a somewhat devious
plan
a plan
Sharp
smart, clever
conniving, unethical
to put an issue on
hold
to fail miserably
to take up an issue
to succeed grandly