2.

COVALENT BOND
a strong bond based on the sharing of an electron pair
between 2 or more atoms
Sharing of an electron pair

Partial electron transfer

to reach the noble gas configuration

e.g. Hydrogen

H2

The noble gas configuration is reached by sharing of

electrons between atoms forming covalent bond which is a
very strong atomic interaction

Covalent bond
Lewis sturcture: (mainly for representative elements) the
valence shell electrons are symbolised by dots.
e.g. Cl2 , O2 , N2

Covalent bond
Lewis sturcture: (mainly for representative elements) the
valence shell electrons are symbolised by dots.
Structural formula: shows the sequence in which the
atoms are joined together. Eg. H Cl
Molecular formula: gives the composition only, but not
the structure. HCl

Covalent bond

Some elements are not too close to the noble gasas

More difficult to reach the noble gas configuration

They share electrons
e.g. H2 , N2, O2 Cl2
Double bonds eg. O2
Triple bonds eg. N2

Sigma and pi bonds

- All single bonds are sigma bonds
- A double bond is one sigma and one pi bond
- A triple bond is one sigma and two pi bonds.

Covalent bond
Bonding electron pair: an electron pair belonging to at least
two atoms.
Shared electron pair
Each pair is 1 bond
Non-bonding or lone electron pair:
which does not take part in the chemical bonding.
Belongs to one atom only.
Not shared electron pair

Covalent bond
Covalent bond between different atoms
H + Cl

HCl

4H + C

CH4

2O + C

CO2

Lewis structures:
Molecular formula
Stuctural formula

H-Cl

Covalent bond
BOND POLARISATION
In covalent bonds: the electrons are shared
equally, if the bonding atoms are of the same element
not equally, if the bonding atoms are of different elements
If different atoms are bonded in a covalent bond, one
attracts electrons more than the other. This preference is
characterised by the electronegativity.
Electronegativity: the ability of electron attraction
is the ability of an atom in covalent bond to attract the
bonding electron pairs

Covalent bond

Electronegativity

Electronegativity is the ability of an atom in covalent bond

to attract the electrons of the bond toward itself.
Changes periodically in the PT. Correlates with Ei, r.
in one period period:
increase with atomic
in one group:
number
decrease with
atomic number
H
further from
Li Be
nucleus,
Na Mg
decreasing
K Ca Sc Ti
V
attracion of the
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb
nucleus
n s1

EN order:
F >O > N > C > H

n s2

s field?

Noble
gases!

ns1p1 ns1p2 ns1p3 ns1p4 ns1p5 ns1p6

d field

p field

I.A

A: representative elements
B: transition elements
58-71 & 90-103: inner
trasition elements

1,0

II.A

nonmetals

He

metaloids
metals

III.A

6,9

11

9,0

12

19

24,3

20

III.B

21

IV.B

22

V.B

23

VI.B

24

39,1

37

40,0

38

45,0

39

47,9

40

50,9

41

85,5

55

noble gases!
Have NO EN

56

88,9

57

91,2

72

92,9

73

26

27

I.B

28

29

II.B

30

VI.A

VII.A

10,8

12,0

14,0

16,0

19,0

14

15

16

17

Al

Si

Cl

27,0

28,0

31,0

32,1

35,5

31

32

33

34

35

Fe

Co

Ni

Cu

Zn

Ga

Ge

As

Se

Br

52,0

55,8

58,9

58,7

63,5

65,4

69,7

72,6

74,9

79,0

79,9

54,9

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

Rh

Pd

Ag

Cd

In

Sn

Sb

Te

Xe

102,9

106,4

107,9

112,4

114,8

118,7

121,8

127,6

126,9

131,3

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

Os

Ir

Pt

Au

Hg

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

132,9

137,3

138,9

178,5

180,9

183,9

186,2

190,2

192,2

195,1

197,0

200,6

204,4

207,2

209,0

210

210

Ra Ac** Ku
226

227

260

59

60

61

Ce

Pr

Nd

140,1

140,9

144,2

90
**

91

Th Pa

232,0

83,8

54

101,0

Re

223

Kr

Ru

Fr

39,9

36

99

Ta
58

Ar

Tc

Hf
104

20,2

18

95,9

La*
89

Ne

Mo

Ba
88

4,0

10

Cs
87

87,6

25

VIII.B

V.A

Cr Mn
42

VII.B

IV.A

13

23,0

?
VIII.
A

231

92

62

Pm Sm
147

93

150,4

94

Np

Pu

238

237

242

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

86

Rn
222

71

Eu

Gd

Tb

Dy

Ho

Er

Tm Yb

Lu

152,0

157,3

158,9

162,5

164,9

168,3

168,9

175,0

95

96

97

Am Cm Bk
242

247

249

98

99

100

Cf

Es

251

254

f field

101

173,0

102

Fm Md No
253

256

254

103

Lr
257

The ELECTRONEGATIVITYof the ELEMENTS

H: 2.20
Li:0.97
Na:1.01Mg: 1.23
K: 0.91

EN order:
F>O>N>C>H
n s1

n s2

s field?

ns1p1 ns1p2 ns1p3 ns1p4 ns1p5 ns1p6

d field

p field

I.A

C
2.50
Al
1.47

N
O
F
3.07 3.50 4.1
P
2.06

S
Cl
2.44 2.83
Br
2.74

1
1,0

3
2

noble gases!
Have NO EN

I
2.21

IV.A

V.A

VI.A

VII.A

10,8

12,0

14,0

16,0

19,0

12

Na

Mg

23,0

24,3

20

13
III.B

21

IV.B

22

V.B

23

VI.B

24

VII.B

25

VIII.B

26

27

I.B

28

29

II.B

30

14

15

16

17

Al

Si

Cl

27,0

28,0

31,0

32,1

35,5

31

32

33

34

35

Ca

Sc

Ti

Cr Mn

Fe

Co

Ni

Cu

Zn

Ga

Ge

As

Se

Br

39,1

40,0

45,0

47,9

50,9

52,0

55,8

58,9

58,7

63,5

65,4

69,7

72,6

74,9

79,0

79,9

38

39

40

41

42

Rb

Sr

Zr

Nb Mo

85,5

87,6

88,9

91,2

92,9

56

57

72

73

95,9

74

54,9

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

51

52

53

Pd

Ag

Cd

In

Sn

Sb

Te

Xe

106,4

107,9

112,4

114,8

118,7

121,8

127,6

126,9

131,3

75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

Re

Os

Ir

Pt

Au

Hg

Tl

Pb

Bi

Po

At

132,9

137,3

138,9

178,5

180,9

183,9

186,2

190,2

192,2

195,1

197,0

200,6

204,4

207,2

209,0

210

210

223

Ra Ac** Ku
226

227

260

60

61

Ce

Pr

Nd

140,1

140,9

144,2

90
**

91

Th Pa

232,0

231

83,8

54

102,9

Fr

Kr

Rh

Ta

59

39,9

36

101,0

Hf

58

Ar

Ru

La*

104

20,2

18

99

Ba

89

Ne

Tc

Cs

88

4,0

10

9,0

87
7

III.A

Be

55
6

He

metaloids
metals

6,9

37
5

nonmetals

Li

19
4

II.A

11
3

A: representative elements
B: transition elements
58-71 & 90-103: inner
trasition elements

?
VIII.
A

92

62

Pm Sm
147

93

150,4

94

Np

Pu

238

237

242

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

86

Rn
222

71

Eu

Gd

Tb

Dy

Ho

Er

Tm Yb

Lu

152,0

157,3

158,9

162,5

164,9

168,3

168,9

175,0

95

96

97

Am Cm Bk
242

247

249

98

99

100

Cf

Es

251

254

f field

101

173,0

102

Fm Md No
253

256

254

103

Lr
257

Covalent bond
Between different atoms the electron sharing in the covalent
bond is not equal
The electron spends more time around one of the atoms
This means the electron pair shifts closer to one of the atoms
(which has higher EN) and the electron pair is further from the
other atom (which has smaller EN)
In the covalent bond one of the atom has partial electron excess
The ather one has partial electron defficience
e.g. HCl

Covalent bond
Partial Electron excess

Partial negative charge: -

Partial Electron defficience

Partial positive charge: +

Covalent bond is NOT full electron transfer

Covalent bond is always PARTIAL electron transfer-shared electrons!!!
e.g. CH4

Covalent bond Polarized or non-polarized???

When the electron sharing is equal - if the bonding atoms are of
the same element -the covalent bond called NON-POLARIZED
covalent bond
When the electron sharing is not equal - if the bonding atoms
are of different elements -the covalent bond called POLARIZED
covalent bond

Covalent bond
Electron transfer beetween 2 atoms

chemical reaction

Electron transfer is always an oxidation- reduction reaction ,

In which the element loses an electron is oxidation
the element gains an electron is reduction
Even if the elecrton transfer is partial like in covalent bond

Oxidation number
e.g.

+ H > Cl
oxidation reduction

Oxidation number: it gives the number of electrons that are

partially or fully lost or gaint
Any time
when the atom loses electron(s) the oxidation nuber is +

(ox)
when the atom gains electron(s) the oxidation nuber is

(red)
e.g. Na+ Ca2+ H-O-H, H-O-Cl, H2SO4, H-O-O-H, KMnO4

Rules for the assigning of oxidation numbers

All species in their elemental form are given the oxidation
number of zero.
All monoatomic ions have the same oxidation number as the
charge on the ion. e.g. Mg2+ has the oxidation number of +2.
All combined hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1
(except metal hydrides where its oxidation number is -1).
All combined oxygen has an oxidation number of -2
(except peroxides where the oxidation number of the oxygen is -1).
In polyatomic species, the sum of the oxidation numbers of the
elements in the ion equals the charge on that species

Oxidation number
For neutral compounds
the sum of the oxidation numbers is ZERO
When the compound is a polyatomic ion:
The sum of the oxidation numbers of the atoms in the
polyatomic ion are the same as the charge on that polyatomic
ion
e.g. NO2-

-2

+3

-2

ON=O

The oxidation number and the charge of a monoatomic ion are

the same
e.g. O2- ; Mg2+

H2SO4,
H-O-O-H,
KMnO4
CH4
NO2SO32H2O
CO2
HCl
CH3COOH

Oxidation numbers:

Shape of the molecules VSEPR theory

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory
Bonds: formed by valence electrons
electron pairs repulse each other
the electron pairs like to be as far from each other as possible
electron pairs:
bonding electron pairs
non-bonding electron pairs
(also called lone pairs)

shape of molecules
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion- VSEPR
- Name tells you the theory.
- Valence shell - outside electrons.
- Electron Pair repulsion
electron pairs try to get as far away as possible.
- Different kinds of electron pairs occupy different space.
non-bonding e- pairs need more space than bonding ones
- Can determine the angles of bonds.
- And the shape of molecules
- Predicts three dimensional geometry of molecules.

shape of molecules

VSEPR

Based on the number of pairs of valence electrons both

bonded and unbonded.

VSEPR theory is based on the idea that the geometry

of a molecule or polyatomic ion is determined primarily
by repulsion among the pairs of electrons associated
with a central atom.
The pairs of electrons may be bonding or nonbonding
Only valence electrons of the central atom influence the
molecular shape.
Central atom : the atom with the lowes EN value except
for Hydrogen

shape of molecules

4 bonded electron pairs around the central atom

- Basic shape is tetrahedral.
- A pyramid with a triangular base.
- Same basic shape for everything
with 4 pairs.
four equal bonds equally distributed
in space
Bond angle: 109.5
E.g. methane CH4

shape of molecules

3 bonded electron pair - 1 lone pair

Around the central atom
- Distorted from tetrahedral
- you cant see the non-bonding electron pair.
- Shape of the molecule is called
- trigonal pyramidal.
bond angle: 107.3
e.g. ammonia, NH3

shape of molecules

2 bonded - 2 lone pairs

- Distorted from tetrahedral
- you cant see the 2 lone pairs
-The shape of the molecule is V-shaped or bent linear)
-bond angle: 105
-E.g. water; H2O
H2S

shape of molecules

2 bonded - no lone pair

Molecular shape is linear
Bond abgle : 1800
e.g. BeCl2

shape of molecules

3 bonded electron pairs - no lone pair

Around the central atom

Shape of the molecule is trigonal planar (planar triangular)

Bond angle is 1200
All atoms are in one plane
e.g. BCl3
BF3

shape of molecules

Carbon:

3 atoms no lone pair

- The farthest you can the electron pair apart is 120.
- Shape is flat and called trigonal planar.
- Will require 1 double bond
e.g. C2H4 (ethene)

shape of molecules

Carbon:

2 atoms no lone pair

- With three atoms the farthest they can get apart is
180.
- Shape called linear.
- Will require 2 double bonds or one triple bond
- E.g. ethyne C2H2 ; CO2

Molecule
type

# of
electron
pairs
around the
atom

# of nonbonding
electron
pairs

Geometry of
the electron
pairs

Geometry
(shape) of
the molecule

For example

AX2

linear

linear

CO2

AX3

trigonal
planar

trigonal
planar

BH3 ,BF3

AX2E

trigonal
planar

Bent, or
angular

SnCl2

AX4

tetrahedra
l

tetrahedra
l

CH4

AX3E

tetrahedra
l

Trigonal
pyramidal

NH3

AX2E2

tetrahedral

bent

H2O , H2S

X : bonding electron pairs

E : non-bonding (lone) electron pairs

shape of molecules

The steric number of a molecule is the number of atoms bonded to

the central atom plus the number of lone pairs on the central atom. It is
often used in VSEPR theory