Inorganic Chemistry
The energy of reactions
Contents
Energetics
Kinetics
Equilibria
Redox Reactions
Group VII, The Halogens
Energetics
Enthalpy Change (H )
Calorimetry
Hesss Law
Calculation of Bond Enthalpies
Using Bond Enthalpies
Enthalpy change (H )
Calorimetry
The enthalpy change can be calculated from the
temperature change in a reaction using the equation:
q = mcT
q is the enthalpy change (J), m is the mass (g) c is the specific heat
capacity J g-1K-1, T is the temperature change in K.
Hesss Law
Hesss law states that, if a reaction can take place by
more than one route and the initial and final conditions
are the same for each route.
route 1
Hf
N2(g) + 3H2(g)
route 2
H1
2N(g) + 6H(g)
Hf = H1 + H2
2NH3 (g)
H2
H1
route 2
H2
2N(g) + 6H(g)
Bond enthalpies can be used to calculate the enthalpy change for a reaction.
Hf = H1 + H2
H1 = the enthalpy for breaking bonds
H2 = the enthalpy for making bonds
For this reaction
Hf = 3xE(HH) + E(N) 6xE(NH)
Where E(XX) represents the bond enthalpy for XX
Kinetics
Collision Theory
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
Collision Theory
Reactions can only occur when reacting particles collide with enough
energy. This energy is called the activation energy. Most collisions do not
result in reaction.
Catalyst provide a different route for the reaction to happen. This route has
a lower activation energy. This means that more of the collisions will be
effective. The rate of reaction is increased
Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
Below is a Maxwell-Boltzman distribution curve. It shows the distribution of
molecular energies in a gas.
As the temperature increases the peak of the line moves lower and to the right.
(From the blue to the red on the picture.)
The area under the graph represents the total number of particles and stays the
same whatever the temperature.
Number
of
particles
with
Energy E
Ea
Energy E
Equilibria
The Dynamic Nature of Equilibria
Le Chateliers Principle.
The Haber Process
Le Chateliers Principle
Le Chateliers principle states that:
The position of the equilibrium of a system changes to
minimise the effect of any imposed change in conditions.
This means:
Increasing the temperature favours the endothermic reaction
Increasing the pressure in a gaseous reaction favours the side of
the reaction which has the fewest number of gaseous molecules,
because this will educe the pressure.
However adding a catalyst does not effect the position of the
equilibrium.
Redox Reactions
Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation States
Redox Equations.
Oxidation States
Oxidation states show how oxidised or reduced an
element is within a compound or ion.
If the oxidation state increases the substance is oxidised
If the oxidation state decreases the substance is
reduced.
Rules for oxidation numbers:
For atoms in element the oxidation state is always 0
For atoms in simple ions the oxidation state is the same as the
charge
In compounds the total of all the oxidation states is 0
In polyatomic ions the total of all the oxidation states is the same
as the charge on the ion
Redox Equations
Sometimes it is easier to show what is being
oxidised and reduced by writing half equations.
E.g Ca +Cl2 CaCl2
This can be written as:
and
The Halogens
Trends
Key facts
Trends
Property
Electronegativity
decreases
Boiling point
increases
Oxidising ability
decreases
Key Facts
All halogens form diatomic molecules
A halogen will displace a halogen which is below it from
its salts because reactivity decreases down the group. ie
Chlorine will displace bromine.
The reaction of silver nitrate with the halide is a test for
halides: AgCl white, AgBr cream, and AgI yellow.
Silver halides are used in photography as they darken in
the presence of light.
Chlorine is used extensively for disinfection.
Summary
Energetics
All chemical changes involve the transfer of energy. The overall enthalpy transfer
during a chemical change is independent of the route taken.
Kinetics
The rate of reaction is effect by factors that effect the overall collision rate. We
can use the Maxwell-Boltzman distribution to show the change in distribution of
molecular kinetic energy with increasing temperature.
Equilibria
Many reactions are reversible and in a closed system reach an equilibrium. The
position of the equilibrium of a system changes to minimise the effect of any
imposed change in conditions. The nature of equilibria means that sometimes
compromises need to be made in industrial processes.
Redox Reactions
These are reactions which involve simultaneous oxidation and reduction. We use
the concept of oxidation number to indicate how oxidised or reduced elements
are.
Group VII, The Halogens
The halogens have many similar properties. They are all reactive and this
reactivity decreases down the group. Chorine is used as a disinfectant.