function of
Prokaryotes.
DEH12BPT
Virus, Bacteria,
Lecture 2
Protists,
and
Fungi
16 February 2013
The overall theme of the Microbiology course is to study the relationship between
microbes and our lives.
Microorganisms (microbes) are organisms that are too small to be seen with
the unaided eye, and usually require a microscope to be seen.
This relationship involves harmful effects such as diseases and food spoilage as well
as many beneficial effects.
Microorganisms include:
1.
Bacteria
2.
3.
Microscopic Algae
4.
Protozoa
5.
These small organisms are usually associated with major diseases such as AIDS,
uncomfortable infections, or food spoilage.
Decomposers: Soil microbes break down dead and decaying matter and recycle
chemical elements that can be used by other organisms.
3. Nitrogen Fixation: Some bacteria can take nitrogen from air and incorporate it
into organic compounds in soil, water, and air.
Digestion: Human and many other animals have microorganisms in their digestive
tract, that are essential for digestion and vitamin synthesis.
a.
b.
5.
6.
Medicine: Many antibiotics and other drugs are naturally synthesized by microbes.
7.
Food industry: many important foods and beverages are made with microbes:
vinegar, pickles, alcoholic beverages, green olives, soy sauce, buttermilk, cheese,
yogurt, and bread.
a.
b.
9.
Medical Research: Microbes are well suited for biological and medical research
for several reasons:
a.
b.
c.
Can grow a large number of cells very quickly and at low cost.
d.
Short generation times make them very useful to study genetic changes.
Knowledge of Microorganisms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Staphylococcus aureus
2.
Escherichia coli
3.
After the first use, scientific names may be abbreviated with the
first letter of the genus and the specific epithet:
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
For nutrition, most bacteria use organic chemicals derived from dead or living
organisms.
8.
Some bacteria produce their food by photosynthesis, and some can derive nutrition
from inorganic substances.
9.
1.
Types of Microorganisms
ARCHAEA
Consists of prokaryotic cells
2.
3.
4.
5.
b.
c.
2.
3.
Multicellular fungi, such as mushroom look like plants, but can not carry out
photosynthesis.
4.
5.
The unicellular fungi, yeasts, are oval MOs that are larger than bacteria.
6.
The most typical fungi are molds, composed of visible masses of filaments
(hyphae) called mycelia.
7.
Use organic chemicals for energy, can not carry out photosynthesis.
8.
9.
10.
Organisms called slime molds have characteristics of both fungi and ameobas.
Types of Microorganisms
PROTOZOA (S. Protozoan)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Figure 1.1c
Types of Microorganisms
ALGAE (S. Alga)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Photosynthetic eukaryotes
Have wide variety of shapes
Reproduce sexually and asexually.
Unicellular and multicelluar.
The cell walls of many algae, like those of plants,
are composed of cellulose (a carbohydrate).
Algae are abundant in fresh and salt water, in soil, and in association with
plants.
As photosynthesizers, algae need light, water, and carbon dioxide for food
production and growth.
Produce molecular oxygen and organic compounds (carbohydrates) that are
used by other organisms, including animals.
They play an important role in the balance of nature.
Types of Microorganisms
VIRUSES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Multicellular Animal
Parasites
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Figure 12.28a
Classification of
Microorganisms
Before the existence of microbes was known, all organisms were grouped into
Before the existence of microbes was known, all organisms were grouped into
b.
c.
d.
Fermentation and
AtPasteurization
that time, many scientists believed that air converted the sugars in
beverages into alcohols.
Pasteur found instead that microbes called yeasts convert the sugars to alcohols
in the absence of air in a process called fermentation .
In the presence of air, bacteria change the alcohol in the beverage into vinegar
(acetic acid).
Pasteurs solution to the spoilage problem was to heat the beer and wine just
enough to kill most of the bacteria that caused the spoilage in a process called
pasteurization.
Showing the connection between spoilage of food and MOs was a major step
towards establishing the relationship between disease and microbes.
Until relatively recently, the fact that many kinds of diseases are related to
MOs was unknown.
Before the time of Pasteur, effective treatments for many diseases were
discovered by trial and error, but the causes of the diseases were unknown.
The realization that yeasts play a crucial role in fermentation was the first link
between the activity of a MO and physical and chemical changes in organic
materials.
This discovery alerted scientists that MOs might have similar relationships with
plants and animals- specially, that MOs might cause diseases.
Many people did not accept this theory at that time, because for centuries
disease was believed to be punishment for individuals crimes and misdeeds.
Vaccination
1796: Edward Jenner found a way to protect people from smallpox almost 70
years before Koch established that microorganism causes anthrax.
The process was called Vaccination, derived from Latine word vacca for cow.
Pasteur used the term vaccine for cultures of avirulent microorganisms used for
preventive inoculation.
Some vaccines are still produced from avirulent microbial strains, others are
made from killed virulent microbes, from isolated components of virulent MOs ,
or by genetic engineering techniques.
The success of chemotherapy is based on the fact that some chemicals are more
poisonous to MOs than to the hosts infected by the microbes.
1910: Paul Ehrlich developed the first synthetic drug, Salvarsan, to treat
syphilis. (the magic bullet!)
1930s: Several other synthetic drugs derived from dyes that could destroy MOs
were developed.
Figure 1.5
Modern Developments in
Microbiology
Branches
of
Microbiology
Bacteriology is the study of bacteria.
Vaccines and interferons are being investigated to prevent and cure viral diseases.
Vaccines are now available for numerous diseases, including measles, rubella
(German measles), mumps, chickenpox, pneumococcal pneumonia, tetanus,
tuberculosis, whooping coughs, polio, and hepatitis B.
Smallpox was eradicated due to effective vaccination and polio is expected to.
Modern Developments in
Microbiology
Branches
of
Microbiology
Virology is the study of viruses.
In 1892, Dimitri Iwanowski reported that the organism that
caused mosaic disease of tobacco was so small that is passed the
bacterial filters.
In 1935, Wendell Stanely demonstrated that the organism ,
called tobacco mosaic virus (TMV), was different from other
microbes, so simple, and composed of only nucleic acid core and
protein core.
In 1940s, the development of electron microscope enabled the
scientists to observe the structure and activity of viruses in
detail.
Modern Developments in
Microbiology
Recombinant
DNA Technology: of Microbiology
Branches
In the 1960s, Paul Berg inserted animal DNA into bacterial DNA and the
bacteria produced an animal protein.
Recombinant DNA is DNA made from two different sources.
Recombinant DNA technology, or genetic engineering, involves microbial
genetics and molecular biology.
Using microbes
Beadle and Tatum showed that genes encode a cells enzymes (1942).
Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty showed that DNA was the hereditary
material (1944).
Lederberg and Tatum discovered that genetic material could be
transferred from one bacterium to another by conjugation (1946).
Watson and Crick proposed a model for the structure of DNA (1953).
Jacob and Monod discovered the role of mRNA in protein synthesis (1961).
The vast majority of microbes benefit humans, other animals, and plants in
many ways.
RECYCLING VITAL ELEMENTS
In 1880s, Beijerinck and Winogradsky showed how bacteria help recycle vital
elements between the soil and the atmosphere.
Microbial ecology: the study of the relationship between microorganisms and
their environment.
Microorganisms recycle carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen, and phosphorus into
forms that can be used by plants and animals.
Bacteria and fungi, return CO2 to the atmosphere when decomposing organic
wastes and dead plants and animals.
Algae, cyanobacteria, and plants use CO2 to produce carbohydrates.
Microbes
and
Human
SEWAGE TREATMENT: Using microbes to recycle water.
Recycling water and prevent the pollution of rivers and oceans
Welfare
Bacteria degrade organic matter in sewage (99% water), producing such
UN 2.1
of human diseases.
Bacillus thuringiensis infections are fatal for many insects but harmless
to other animals, including humans, and to plants.
The bacteria produce protein crystals that are toxic to the digestive
systems of the insects.
The toxin gene has been inserted into some plants to make them insect
resistant.
Microbes that are pathogenic to insects are alternatives to chemical
pesticides in preventing insect damage to agricultural crops, disease
transmission, and avoid harming the environment.
Genetically modified bacteria are used to protect crops from insects, from
freezing, and to improve the appearance, flavor, and shelf life of fruits and
vegetables. (more: Drought resistance and temperature tolerance)
We all live in a world filled with microbes, and we all have a variety of
microorganisms on and in our bodies.
Microbes normally present in and on the human body are called normal
microbiota, or flora.
Bacteria were once classified as plants giving rise to use of the term
flora for microbes.
Emerging infectious diseases (EID): are diseases that are new or changing and are
increasing or have the potential to increase in incidence in the near future.
b.
c.
1.
2.
Caused by prion
b.
c.
New variant CJD in humans is related to cattle feed from infected sheep.
Emerging Infectious
Diseases
3.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Cryptosporidiosis
a. Caused by Cryptosporidium protozoa
b. First reported in 1976
c. Causes 30% of diarrheal illness in developing countries
d. In the United States, transmitted via water
9.
Lecture 3
23 February 2013
Prokaryotic Cell
Structure & Function
From the Virtual Microbiology Classroom on ScienceProfOnline.com
_____________________
_____________________
Images: Prokaryotic cell diagram &
Eukaryotic cell diagram, M. Ruiz
Prokaryotes
_______ ________
Prokaryote Genetics
Nucleoid:
Plasmid:
5 - 100 genes
Antibiotic resistance
Virulence factors (molecules produced by pathogen that
specifically influence host's function to allow the pathogen to thrive)
Promote conjugation
Prokaryotes
Cytoplasm
______________
Granules
Prokaryotes
Cytoskeleton
Cellular "scaffolding" or
"skeleton" within the
cytoplasm.
Major advance in
prokaryotic cell biology in
the last decade has been
discovery of the
prokaryotic cytoskeleton.
Prokaryotes
____Ribosomes_____
Prokaryotes
Plasma Membrane
Plasma
membra
ne
CELL
Liquid
environment
outside the
cell.
Liquid
environment
inside the
cell.
Types of active transport are classified by type of energy used to drive molecules
across membranes.
ATP Driven Active Transport
Energy from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) drives substances across the plasma membrane with
the aid of carrier molecules.
Gram _Positive_
Gram _Negative
Gram-positive
Gram-negative
The space between the cell wall and the plasma membrane is
called the periplasm.
Prokaryotes - Glycocalyx
Some bacteria have an additional layer outside
of the cell wall called the glycocalyx.
This additional layer can come in one of two
forms:
1.
Slime layer__________
wall.
- Streptococcus
Mannitol
Salt
Prokaryotes - Glycocalyx
2. Capsule
Prokaryotes - Endospores
Produce endospores
Produce toxins
Fimbria:Most Gram-negative
bacteria have these short, fine
appendages surrounding the cell.
Gram+ bacteria dont have.
No role in motility. Help bacteria
adhere to solid surfaces. Major
factor in virulence.
to transfer plasmids.
Confused?
Here are links to fun resources that further explain aerobic
respiration:
by Raders.
Viral Structure
Nucleic Acid
DNA or RNA, but not both.
Envelope
Only found in viruses that infect animals.
Spike-like projections that recognize
animal cells and bind to the cell surface.
Section 19-2
Tobacco Mosaic
Virus
T4 Bacteriophage
Head
DNA
Influenza
Virus
RNA
Capsid
proteins
Capsid
RNA
Tail
sheath
Tail
fiber
Surface
proteins
Membrane
envelope
Viral Replication
Lysogenic Cycle.
Viral DNA is inserted into the host cells DNA. This
DNA, called a PROPHAGE, may be reproduced
several times and eventually reactivates.
Properties of Life:
Bacterial Structure
Figure 14.10
Flagella
Cell Membrane
Ribosome
Pili
Chromosome
Cell Wall
Cell
Cell
wall membrane
Flagellum
DNA
Pili
Survival/Reproduction
Endospores
Thick-walled reproductive structures that
can resist heat, drought, and radiation,
sometimes living centuries before breaking
open.
Classifying Bacteria
Archaebacteria (ancient)
Eubacteria
True Bacteria live in much less harsh
environments than archebacteria. Many types
and ways to classify.
Classifying Bacteria,
cont.
Shapes
Spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli), spirals
(spirilla), chains (streptococci), clusters
(staphylococci).
Decomposers.
Breakdown dead material.
Convert (fix) nitrogen into usable forms
for plants.
Symbiosis.
You scratch my back Ill scratch yours.
Section 19-3
Disease
Pathogen
Tooth decay
Streptococcus mutans
Prevention
Regular dental hygiene
Lyme disease
Borrelia burgdorferi
Tetanus
Clostridium tetani
Tuberculosis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Vaccination
Salmonella enteritidis
Pneumonia
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Cholera
Vibrio cholerae
Section 19-3
Type of Virus
Nucleic Acid
Oncogenic viruses
DNA
Disease
Cancer
Retrovirus
RNA
Cancer, AIDS
Adenoviruses
DNA
Respiratory infections
Herpesviruses
DNA
Chickenpox
Poxviruses
DNA
Smallpox
Protists
Common characteristic:
EUKARYOTES
Very diverse (20 new kingdoms?)
Three general categories:
Animal-Like Protists (p. 355-357)
Plantlike Protists (p. 358-361)
Funguslike Protists (p. 362-364)
Concept Map
Section 20-1
Protists
are classified by
Animallike
Plantlike
which
which
which
Produce food by
photosynthesis
Obtain food by
external digestion
Funguslike
which include
Decomposers
Parasites
Contractile vacuole
Pseudopods
Nucleus
Food vacuole
Lysosomes
Trichocysts
Oral groove
Gullet
Anal pore
Contractile vacuole
Micronucleus
Macronucleus
Food vacuoles
Cilia
Section Outline
Plantlike
Protists:
Unicellular
Section 20-3
Algae
A. Chlorophyll and Accessory Pigments
B. Euglenophytes
C. Chrysophytes
D. Diatoms
E. Dinoflagellates
Euglena
Section 20-3
Chloroplast
Carbohydrate
storage bodies
Gullet
Pellicle
Flagella
Eyespot
Nucleus
Contractile
vacuole
Section Outline
Funguslike Protists
A. Slime Molds
1. Cellular Slime Molds
2. Acellular Slime Molds
B. Water Molds
Section 20-5
MEIOSIS
FERTILIZATION
Mature
sporangium
Spores
Zygote
Germinating
spore
Young
sporangium
Mature
plasmodium
Feeding
plasmodium
Haploid (N)
Diploid (2N)
Fungi
3 Common characteristics:
Cell wall are chitin. Same covering
as insects.
Made of individual filaments, called
hyphae. Tubes full of cytoplasm and
nuclei.
Masses of hyphae combine to form
the mycelium. This is the body of
the fungus.
Hyphae Structure
Section 21-1
Nuclei
Cell wall
Cytoplasm
Cross wall
Cytoplasm
Nuclei
Cell wall
Cap
Button
Gills
Stalk
Base
Basidia
(N + N)
Secondary
mycelium (N + N)
FERTILIZATION
HYPHAE FUSE
Primary mycelium (N)
Zygote (2N)
Haploid
Diploid
MEIOSIS
Basidiospores (N)