Unit-3

Screw thread
and
Gear measurement

Screw thread measurement: Elements of measurementerrors in screw threads-measurement of effective

diameter, angle of thread and thread pitch
Gear Measurement: Gear measuring instruments, Gear
tooth profile measurement. Measurement of diameter,
pitch, pressure angle and tooth thickness.

Screw thread- definition

A screw thread is a continuous helical groove of
specified cross-section produced on the
external or internal surface of a cylinder or a
cone.
A screw thread formed on a cylinder is known
as straight or parallel screw thread, while the
one formed on a cone is known as tapered
threads.

Types of thread
External thread: a thread formed on
outside of a work piece is known as
external thread.
Example: on bolts or studs etc.
Internal thread: a thread formed on
inside of a work piece is known as
internal thread.
Example: on a nut

Screw thread - use

Screw threads are used:
To hold parts together-act as fasteners with
the help of nuts, bolts and studs
Ex: V-threads
To transmit motion & power with the help of
lead screw in a lathe or in fly press.
Ex: Square, Acme threads

Terminology of screw
threads

Screw Thread
terminology
EXTERNAL THREAD TERMINOLOGY
Pitch

Crest

Flank
Pitch line
Thread
Angle

Addendum
Flank
angle

Axial thickness

Root

Axis of thread
Major dia Pitch dia

Minor dia

Dedendum

BC=pitch

Screw Thread
terminology
Crest : crest is the prominent part of the thread i.e ,
top surface joining the two sides of thread
Root: Root is the bottom of the groove between the
sides of two adjacent threads.
Flank: The straight surface between the crest and root
which connects the crest with the root is called the
flank
. The distance from a point on a screw thread to
Pitch:
a corresponding point on the next thread measured
parallel to the axis.
Lead: The distance a screw thread advances in one
turn. For a single start threads, lead=pitch,
For double start, lead=2xpitch, & so on.

Screw Thread
terminology
Major

Diameter: This is the diameter of an

imaginary cylinder, co-axial with the screw, which
just touches the crests of an external thread or roots
of an internal threads.
It is also called as Nominal diameter
Minor diameter: This is the diameter of an
imaginary cylinder, co-axial with the screw which
just touches the roots of an external thread or the
crest of an internal thread.
This is also referred to as root or core diameter.

Screw Thread
terminology

Effective diameter or Pitch diameter:

On a straight screw thread, the diameter of an

imaginary
cylinder where the widths of
the threads(metal) and the widths of the spaces
between the threads are equal; each being half
the pitch.

Screw Thread
terminology
Thread angle(Included
angle ): Included
angle between sides of thread measured in
axial plane.
Flank angle(/2): Angle made by the flank
of a thread with the perpendicular to the
thread axis is called flank angle. It is half the
included angle of the thread.
Helix angle(): On a straight thread, the
helix angle is the angle made by the helix of
the thread at the pitch line with the axis. Helix
angle is complementary of lead angle.
Tan = p/d, where p=pitch, d=mean

Screw Thread
thread:
It is the distance between
terminology

Depth of
crest and root measured perpendicular to axis
of screw.
Addendum: It is the distance between the
crest and the
pitch line measured
perpendicular to axis of the screw.
Dedendum: It is the distance between the
pitch line & the root measured perpendicular
to axis of the screw.

Multiple start thread: This is produced by

forming two or more helical grooves, equally
spaced and similarly formed in an axial
section on a cylinder. This gives a quick
traverse without sacrificing core strength.
Lead: The distance a
screw thread advances
in one turn. For a single
start
threads,
lead=pitch,
For double start,
lead=2xpitch, & so on.

Errors in threads
There are 5 important elements of a thread,
and errors in any one of these may cause
rejection.
1.Major diameter
2.Minor diameter
3.Effective diameter
4.Pitch
5.Angle of thread

Errors in Major and Minor diameters:

Will cause interference with the mating thread. Due to errors in
these elements, the root section and wall thickness will be less,
also the flank contact will be reduced and ultimately the
component will be weak in strength.
Errors on the effective diameter will also result in
weakening of the assembly due to interference between the
flanks. More force is required for fitting.
Similarly pitch and angle errors are also not desirable as
they cause a progressive tightening and interference on
assembly. These two errors have a special significance as they
can be precisely related to the effective diameter.

4.Pitch
Error

Drunken thread: This is the one having erratic

pitch, in which the advance of the helix is irregular in one
complete rotation.
Thread drunkenness is a particular case of a periodic
pitch error recurring at intervals of one pitch.
In such a thread, the pitch measured parallel to the
thread axis will always be correct, the only error being that
the thread is not cut to a true helix.
If the development of the thread is taken then the
drunken can be visualised.

Tan =
p/d

The helix will be a curve in the case of drunken thread

and not a straight line as shown in fig.
It is very difficult to determine such errors and moreover
they do not have any great effect on the working, unless
the thread is of very large size.
Thread micrometer is the only instrument to identify the
drunken thread

Pitch errors in screw threads: Generally the

threads are generated by a point cutting tool.
For pitch to be correct, the ratio of the linear velocity of tool
and angular velocity of the work must be correct and this ratio
must be maintained constant, otherwise pitch errors will
occur.
The total pitch error in overall length of the thread being called
cumulative error.

Progressive pitch error: This error occurs when the

tool work velocity ratio is incorrect though it may be constant.
It can also be caused due to pitch errors in the lead screw of the
lathe or other generating machine.
The other possibility is by using an incorrect gear or an
approximate gear train between work and lead screw.

Progressive pitch error

Periodic pitch error

Effect: An error in pitch virtually increases the effective diameter

of a bolt and decreases the effective diameter of a nut.

Periodic pitch error: This repeats itself at regular

intervals along the thread. In this case, successive portions of
the thread are either longer or shorter than mean.
This type of error occurs when the tool work velocity ratio is
not constant. This type of error also results when a thread is
cut from a lead screw which lacks squareness.
Thus the errors due to these cases are cyclic and pitch
increases to a maximum, then reduces through normal value
to a minimum and so on.
The graph between the cumulative pitch error and length of
threads for this error will, therefore, be a sinusoidal form.
Thread drunkenness is a particular case of a periodic
pitch error recurring at intervals of one pitch.

Irregular errors:These arise from disturbances in the

machining set-up, variations in the cutting properties of
materials etc. Thus they have no specific causes and
correspondingly no specific characteristics also.
Errors could be summarised as:

1.Erratic pitch: This is the irregular error in pitch and

varies irregularly in magnitude over different lengths of
thread.
2.Progressive error: When the pitch of a screw is
uniform, but is shorter or longer than its nominal value, it is
said to have progressive error
3.Periodic error: If the errors vary in magnitude and
recur at regular intervals, when measured from thread to
thread along the screw are referred to as periodic errors.

5.Angle
error

Angle errors on threads may be either due to errors on one

or both flanks. Any error in angle of thread results in
interference between the bolt and nut.
Thus like pitch errors, the angle errors also increase the
effective diameter of a bolt and decrease that of a nut.
Assuming that one of the pairs is correct, it is possible to
satisfactorily assemble the thread pairs by modifying the
effective diameter.

MEASUREMENT OF VARIOUS
ELEMENTS OF THREAD
To find out the accuracy of a screw
thread it will be necessary to measure
the following:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Major diameter.
Minor diameter.
Effective or Pitch diameter.
Pitch
Angle of thread

Measurement of effective
diameter

Effective diameter measurement is

carried out by following methods.
1.Micrometer method
2. One wire, two wire, three wire
method

Thread micrometer

Thread micrometer
method
It has special: contacts to suit the screw thread form that is to
be checked. In this micrometer, the end of the spindle is
pointed to the Vee-thread form with a corresponding Veerecess in the fixed anvil.
If correctly adjusted, this micrometer gives the pitch
diameter.
For correct results it is necessary to use a separate thread
micrometer for every size of screw thread to be gauged,
otherwise there will always be a small amount of error
inherent in thread micrometer.
This is the only method which shows the variation for the
drunken thread.

One wire method:

one wire is placed between two
threads at one side and on the
other side the anvil of the
measuring micrometer contacts the
crests
as
shown
in
Fig.
First the micrometer reading is
noted on a standard gauge whose
dimension is nearly same as to be
obtained by this method.
Actual measurement over wire on
one side and threads on other side
= size of gauge difference in two
micrometer readings.

Two wire method:

Wires of exactly known identical diameters are

chosen such that they contact the flanks of

the thread as shown.
If the size of the wire is such it contacts the
flanks at the pitch line, it is called the best
size of wire which can be determined by
geometry of screw thread.
The screw thread is mounted between the
centers & wires are placed in the grooves and
reading M is taken.
Then the effective diameter E =T+P
where T = Dimension under wires=M-2d,
M= Dimension over the wires
d= diameter of each wire

Two wire method:

M-Dimension over the wire

Two wire method:

Two wire method:

Two wire method:

AP=OP-OA

Two wire method:

P= constant, which depends on the dia. of wire and pitch of the thread=2 AQ
p= pitch
E= M - 2d + 2AQ or M= E+2d-2AQ

Floating Carriage machine

Three Wire method

Three Wire method

M=E+2h+2r

M= E+2d-2AQ in 2 wire
So, d =h+ r + AQ

Three Wire method

This method is more accurate than two

wire method as it ensures alignment of

micrometer faces parallel to the thread
axis.
Here, three wires of exactly known
diameters are used, one on one side & the
two on the other side. The wires may be
held in hand or hung from a stand.
From the fig, M=diameter over the wires
E= effective diameter (to be found)
d= diameter of wires, h=height of wire
center above the pitch line, r=radius of

Three Wire method

d

From the triangle ABD , AD AB cosec cosec

2 2
2
P

H P
Assume
H DE cot cot
and CD cot
2 2
2
2 4
2 CD=H/2
P

d
Further h ( AD CD ) cosec cot
2 4
2
2
Distance over the wires, M E 2h 2r
P

i.e. M E 2 rcosec cot 2r E 2r 1 cosec cot

2 4
2
2
2
2

Or M E d 1 cosec cot
2
2
2

Three Wire method

For Whitworth thread, 55o , depth of thread 0.64P

E D - 0.64P, cosec 2.1657, and cot 1.921

2
2
M D 3.1657d 1.605P where D is the major diameter of the thread.
For Metric threads, Depth of thread 0.6495P

E D 0.6495P, 60 , cos ec 2, cot 1.732

2
2
M D 3d 1.5155P
o

We can measure the value of M practically & then

compare with the theoretical values using formulae derived above.
After finding the correct value of M, as d is known, E can be found out.

BEST WIRE SIZE

P/4
P

Pitch line
B

P/2

BEST SIZE OF WIRE

BEST WIRE SIZE

The best size wire is the one which makes contact at the pitch line
or effective diameter of the screw thread. In other words, as shown in fig OB
is perpendicular to flank portion of the thread at the pitch line.
AB
AB

In the triangle OAB, Sin B O A

, or sin 90 -
2 OB

OB
AB
AB

OB

AB sec .

cos
sin 90 -
2
2

1
But OB radius of wire dia of best size wire (D b )
2

P
i.e. D b 2 OB 2 AB sec . Also since AB lies on the pitch line, AB
2
4
where P is the pitch of the thread.

P
P

D b 2 sec sec
4
2 2
2

Pitch measurement
Very important than effective
diameter
The most commonly used methods for
measuring the pitch are
1.Tool makers microscope
2.Pitch measuring machine(Pitter and
Matrix)
3.Screw pitch gauge or profile gauge
4.Profile projector

Tool makers microscope:

Accuracy: 0.001 mm, for angles 10 sec of arc

Tool makers microscope:

Eye piece

Optical head

Column

work table
with carriage
Hollow base
Lamp
Collimator lens
Mirror

Base

Tool makers microscope:

Tool makers microscope:

1. Worktable is placed on the base of the
instrument.
2. The optical head is mounted on a vertical column
it can be moved up and down.
3. Work piece is mounted on a glass plate.
4. A light source provides horizontal beam of light
which is reflected from a mirror by 90 degree
upwards towards the table.
5. Image of the outline of contour of the work piece
passes through the objective of the optical head.
6. The image is projected by a system of three
prisms to a ground glass screen.
7. The measurements are made by means of cross
lines engraved on the ground glass screen.
8. The screen can be rotated through 360.
9. Different types of graduated screens and

Pitch measuring
machine(Pitter)

Spring loaded head permits the stylus to move up the flank of

the thread and down into the next space as it is moved along.
Screw is held stationary between the centers.
Accurate positioning of the stylus between the two flanks is
obtained by ensuring that the pointer T is always opposite to
its index mark when readings are taken.

When the pointer is accurately placed in position, the

micrometer reading is noted. The stylus is then moved
along into the next thread space, by rotation of the
micrometer, and a second reading taken.
The difference between the two readings is the pitch of
the thread. Readings are taken in this manner until the
whole length of the screw thread has been covered.

Stylus point should make contact on or near the effective diameter

Matrix Pitch Measuring

machine:
Similar to Pitter machine.
Robust in construction and sensitive in measurement
Accuracy:0.0025 mm over a distance of 50mm for all
thread forms
Micrometer head is provided on the headstock which is
fixed to the base . The rotation of micrometer head produces
movement of the longitudinal carriage along the bed of the
base
Another carriage carrying the indicating and amplifying
units comprising stylus.
The stylus is traversed along the thread, pitch by pitch
reading being taken each time fiducial indicator is set at
zero.

Matrix pitch measuring machine

Profile Projector

Profile Projector(optical profile projector)

By using lenses and beams of light, profiles of small shapes
can be magnified. The enlarged image can be compared with
accurate drawing made to the scale of magnification.
Such a comparison can reveal any deviations in the sizes and
contours of the objects and to get a numerical assessment of
such deviations, measurements can be made on the enlarged
shadow.

Screw pitch gauge

IS:4211-1967, the gauges which help to identify the thread pitch

of ISO metric screw threads in the pitch range 0.25 to 6.0 mm
are made in the form of 24 blades made of suitable tool steel
sheet and 0.5 mm thick.
23 for checking the pitches and
one having an ISO profile of 600
All these blades are assembled in a protective sheath.
These are suitable hinged in the sheath with screw and nut
arrangement, and can be easily removed and rotated.

Measurement of screw thread angle (Flank

angle)

Profile Projector & protractor

Tool makers microscope

Measurement of major
diameter

The instruments which are used to find the

major diameter are by
Bench micrometer

Ordinary micrometer:
The ordinary micrometer is quite suitable for
measuring the external major diameter.
It is first adjusted for appropriate cylindrical size
(S) having the same diameter
(approximately).This process is known as gauge
setting .
After taking this reading R the micrometer is
set on the major diameter of the thread, and the
new reading is R2

Measurement by Bench
micrometer:
Clamp
Fiducial
Indicator

Measuring
Anvils

Supports

Holding centres
Micrometer head

BENCH MICROMETER

Measurement by Bench
micrometer:
For getting the greater accuracy the bench micrometer is
used for measuring the major diameter.
In this process the variation in measuring Pressure, pitch
errors are being neglected.
The fiducial indicator is used to ensure all the
measurements are made at same pressure.
The instrument has a micrometer head with a vernier scale
to read the accuracy of 0.002mm. Calibrated setting cylinder
having the same diameter as the major diameter of the
thread to be measured is used as setting standard.
After setting the standard, the setting cylinder is held
between the anvils and the reading is taken

Measurement by Bench
micrometer:
Then the cylinder is replaced by the threaded work piece and
the new reading is taken

Measurement by Bench
micrometer:

Measurement by Bench
micrometer:
Holding centre

Measuring anvil

Measuring anvil

Screw Thread

Standard Cylinder

Holding centre

Measurement of Major diameter

Measurement of the major

diameter of an Internal thread:

An indirect approach of measuring internal dia

is obtained by obtaining the cast of the
Thread. The main art thus lies in obtaining a
perfect cast.

Measurement of the major

diameter of an Internal thread:

Measurement of Minor
diameter

The minor diameter is measured by a

comparative method by using floating
carriage diameter measuring machine and
small V pieces which make contact with the
root of the thread.
These V pieces are made in several sizes,
having suitable radii at the edges.
V pieces are made of hardened steel.
The floating carriage diameter-measuring
machine is a bench micrometer mounted on

Measurement of Minor
diameter

Measurement of Minor
diameter
The threaded work piece is mounted between the
centres of the instrument and the V pieces are placed
on each side of the work piece and then the reading is
noted.
After taking this reading the work piece is then
replaced by a standard reference cylindrical setting
gauge.

Measurement of Minor
diameter of Internal
threads:
The Minor diameter of Internal
threads are measured by
1. Using taper parallels
2. Using Rollers.

Measurement of Minor
diameter of Internal
threads:
1. Using taper parallels:
For diameters less than 200mm the use of Taper
parallels and micrometer is very common.
The taper parallels are pairs of wedges having
reduced and parallel outer edges.
The diameter across their outer edges can be
changed by sliding them over each other.

Measurement of Minor
diameter of Internal
Using rollers: threads:
For more than 200mm diameter this method
is used. Precision rollers are inserted inside the
thread and proper slip gauge is inserted
between the rollers.
The minor diameter is then the length of slip
gauges plus twice the diameter of roller.

Two wire method

GEAR MEASUREMENT
A gear is a component within a transmission device that
transmits rotational force to another gear or device
When two spur gears of different sizes mesh together, the
larger gear is called a wheel, and the smaller gear is called a
pinion.

TYPES OF GEARS
1. According to the position of axes of the shafts.
a. Parallel
1.Spur Gear
2.Helical Gear
3.Rack and Pinion
b. Intersecting
Bevel Gear
c. Non-intersecting and Non-parallel
Worm and worm gears

2. According to the forms

of Teeth
In actual practice following are the two types of
teeth commonly used
1. Involute teeth.
2. Cycloidal teeth

Parallel
1.SPUR GEAR
Teeth is parallel to axis of rotation
Transmit power from one shaft to another parallel shaft

External and Internal spur Gear

2.Helical Gear
The teeth on helical gears are cut at an angle to the face of the
gear
This gradual engagement makes helical gears operate much
more smoothly and quietly than spur gears

Helical Gear Contd..

3.Rack and pinion

Rack and pinion gears are used to convert rotation (From the
pinion) into linear motion (of the rack)
A perfect example of this is the steering system on many cars

B. Straight and Spiral Bevel Gears (Intersecting)

C. WORM AND WORM GEAR

(Non-intersecting & Non-parallel)

Forms of Teeth
In actual practice following are the two types of teeth
commonly used
1. Involute teeth.
2. Cycloidal teeth

Comparison Between Involute and Cycloidal Gears

In actual practice, the involute gears are more commonly used as
compared to cycloidal gears, due to the following advantages :
Advantages of involute gears
The most important advantage of the involute gears is that the centre
distance for a pair of involute gears can be varied within limits without
changing the velocity ratio. This is not true for cycloidal gears which
requires exact centre distance to be maintained.
In involute gears, the pressure angle, from the start of the engagement of
teeth to the end of the engagement, remains constant. It is necessary for
smooth running and less wear of gears. But in cycloidal gears, the pressure
angle is maximum at the beginning of engagement, reduces to zero at
pitch point, starts decreasing and again becomes maximum at the end of
engagement. This results in less smooth running of gears.
The face and flank of involute teeth are generated by a single curve where
as in cycloidal gears, double curves (i.e. epi-cycloid and hypo-cycloid) are
required for the face and flank respectively. Thus the involute teeth are
easy to manufacture than cycloidal teeth. In involute system, the basic
rack has straight teeth and the same can be cut with simple tools.
Note : The only disadvantage of the involute teeth is that the interference
occurs with pinions having smaller number of teeth. This may be avoided
by altering the heights of addendum and dedendum of the mating teeth or
the angle of obliquity of the teeth.

Advantages of cycloidal gears

Following are the advantages of cycloidal gears :

Since the cycloidal teeth have wider flanks, therefore the

cycloidal gears are stronger than the involute gears, for the same
pitch. Due to this reason, the cycloidal teeth are preferred
specially for cast teeth.
In cycloidal gears, the contact takes place between a convex
flank and concave surface, whereas in involute gears, the convex
surfaces are in contact. This condition results in less wear in
cycloidal gears as compared to involute gears. However the
difference in wear is negligible.
In cycloidal gears, the interference does not occur at all. Though
there are advantages of cycloidal gears but they are outweighed
by the greater simplicity and flexibility of the involute gears.

NOMENCLATURE OF SPUR GEARS

Face : It is the surface of the gear tooth above the pitch

surface.
Flank : It is the surface of the gear tooth below the pitch
surface.
Top land: It is the surface of the top of the tooth.
Face width: It is the width of the gear tooth measured parallel
to its axis.
Profile: It is the curve formed by the face and flank of the
tooth.

A key parameter is the pitch circle, which indicates where the teeth should mesh,
and is used in calculating the Center Distance. The Pressure angle indicates
the angle at which the contact force between gear teeth occur.

 Pitch circle. It is an imaginary circle which by pure

rolling action would give the same motion as the actual
gear.
Pitch circle diameter. It is the diameter of the pitch
circle. The size of the gear is usually specified by the
pitch circle diameter. It is also known as pitch diameter.
Pitch point. It is a common point of contact between
two pitch circles of gears in mesh.
Pressure angle or angle of obliquity. It is the angle
between the common normal to the two gear teeth at
the point of contact and the common tangent to the two
pitch circles at the pitch point.
It is usually denoted by . The standard pressure angles
are
14 1/2 and 20.

 Addendum. It is the radial distance of a tooth from the

pitch circle to the top of the tooth.
Dedendum. It is the radial distance of a tooth from the
pitch circle to the bottom of the tooth.
Addendum circle. It is the circle drawn through the
top of the teeth and is concentric with the pitch circle.
Dedendum circle. It is the circle drawn through the
bottom of the teeth. It is also called root circle.
Note :
Base circle diameter
= Pitch circle diameter(D) cos , where is the
pressure angle.
Base pitch= circular pitch x cos

Circular pitch: It is the distance measured on the

circumference of the pitch circle from a point of one
tooth to the corresponding point on the next tooth. It is
usually denoted by Pc ,Mathematically,

Pc = m, m= module
A little consideration will show that the two gears will
mesh together correctly, if the two wheels have the
same circular pitch.
Note : If D1 and D2 are the diameters of the two
meshing gears having the teeth T1 and T2
respectively, then for them to mesh correctly,

Diametral pitch: It is the ratio of number of teeth to the pitch

circle diameter in millimeters. It is denoted by pd.
Mathematically,

Module: It is the ratio of the pitch circle diameter in

millimeters to the number of teeth. It is usually denoted by
m. It is reciprocal of Diametral pitch Mathematically,

Total depth: It is the radial distance between the

addendum and the dedendum circles of a gear. It is
equal to the sum of the addendum and dedendum.

The addendum circle is that which contains the tops of the teeth and its
diameter is the outside or blank diameter.
The dedendum or root circle is that which contains the bottoms of the
tooth spaces and its diameter is the root diameter.

Circular tooth thickness is measured on the tooth around the pitch circle,
that is, it is the length of an arc.
Circular pitch is the distance from a point on one tooth to the
corresponding point on the next tooth, measured around the pitch circle.

The module is the pitch circle diameter divided by the number of teeth.
The Diametrical pitch is the number of teeth per inch of pitch circle
diameter. This is a ratio.
The pitch point is the point of contact between the pitch circles of two
gears in mesh.

The line of action: Contact between the teeth of meshing gears takes place
along a line tangential to the two base circles. This line passes through
the pitch point and is called the line of action.
The pressure angle: The angle between the line of action and the common
tangent to the pitch circles at the pitch point is the pressure angle.
The tooth face is the surface of a tooth above the pitch circle, parallel to
the axis of the gear.
The tooth flank is the tooth surface below the pitch circle, parallel to the
axis of the gear. If any part of the flank extends inside the base circle it
cannot have involute form. It may have ant other form, which does not
interfere with mating teeth, and is usually a straight radial line.

Draw the pitch circle, diameter D, about the centre of the gear,O. This is shown in red.
Draw the outside diameter (green) by drawing a circle about O with a radius greater than
the pitch circle by the value of the addendum.
Draw the root diameter (light blue) by drawing a circle about O with a radius smaller than
the pitch circle by the value of the dedendum.

1.Draw a tangent to the pitch circle (pink).

2.Draw a line (orange) through the intersection of the tangent with the
pitch circle which makes an angle equal to the pressure angle, , with
the tangent. This line is the line of action
3.Draw a circle about O which is tangent to the line of action. This is
the base circle and is shown in dark blue.

Pressure Angle

Errors may be present

1.Run out
2.Pitch
3.Profile
4.Back lash
5.Tooth thickness
6.Concentricity
7.Alignment
8.Composite errors

1.Runout: The eccentricity in the pitch circle is called runout.

This is measured using Gear eccentricity testers.
The gear is held in the mandrel in the centres. The dial
indicator of the tester possesses special tip depending upon
the module of the gear to be checked.
The tip is inserted in between the tooth spaces. The gear is
rotated tooth by tooth.
The maximum variation is noted from the dial indicator
reading which gives the runout of the gear.
The runout is twice the eccentricity.
Runout: The composite deviation of a circular part during one full rotation of 3600
Eccentricity is the distance of the axis from the geometric center.

Gear eccentricity testers.

Eccentricity: It is half the radial runout.

2.Pitch measurement(Base pitch)

Errors in the tooth spacing or pitch of gear may be
measured by pitch measuring instrument by measuring the
distance from a point on one tooth to a point on the next
tooth.

Pitch measuring instrument

This instrument has 3 tips. One is the fixed measuring tip, other
one is the sensitive tip whose position can be adjusted by a
screw and the further movement of it is transmitted through a
leverage system to the dial indicator; and the third tip is the
supplementary adjustable stop which is meant for the stability of
the instrument and its position can also be adjusted by a screw.
The distance between the fixed and sensitive tip is set to be
equivalent to the base pitch of the gear with the help of slip
gauges.
The properly set-up instrument is applied to the gear so that all
the three tips contact the tooth profile.
The reading on dial indicator is the error in the base pitch
(distance from one face of a tooth to the corresponding face of
an adjacent tooth on the same gear, measured along the base
circle)

Pitch errors Contd..

1. Angular indexing: The simplest method of determining
pitch errors is to set a dial gauge against a tooth and note
the reading.
If gear is not indexed through the angular pitch, the reading
differs from the original reading.
The difference between these is the cumulative pitch error.
It is necessary to use suitable indexing device to obtain
accurate results.

Pitch measurement using angular indexing

2.Pitch comparator
Two dial gauges on adjacent teeth with the gear mounted in
centres.
The gear is indexed through successive pitches to give a
constant reading on dial A.
Any change in the reading on dial B indicates that pitch errors
are present.
The actual error can be determined by deducting the individual
reading on dial B from the mean of the readings.

Pitch comparator

3.Profile : To check the involute profile of a spur gear

Optical Projection method: The profile of the gear under
test is magnified by optical means and projected on the
screen. It is then compared with master profile.
This method is quick and suitable for checking the profile of
small instrument gears.

4.Backlash : Backlash in gears is the play between mating

tooth surfaces. Backlash is defined as the amount by which
tooth space exceeds the thickness of an engaging tooth.
Tight mesh is objectionable, because of gear sound, increased
power loss, over heating and rupture of lubricating film,
overloaded bearing and premature gear failure.
Hence some backlash is necessary.
2 types- circumferential and normal backlash.
Backlash is determined as follows: one of the two gears of
the pair is locked, while the other is rotated backwards and
forward as far as possible, the maximum displacement
recorded by a comparator.

5. Measurement of tooth thickness(w)

The tooth thickness is generally measured at pitch circle and
is therefore, the pitch line thickness of the tooth. Following
method is used for measuring the gear tooth thickness :
Measurement of tooth thickness by gear tooth vernier
caliper
(Chordal thickness method)
The gear tooth thickness can be conveniently measured by a
gear tooth vernier.
Since the gear tooth thickness varies from the tip to the base
circle of the tooth, the instrument must be capable of
measuring the tooth thickness at a specified position on the
tooth.
The gear tooth vernier has two vernier scales. The vertical
vernier scale is used to set the depth (d) along the pitch
circle from the top surface of the tooth at which the width (w)
has to be measured. While the horizontal vernier scale is used
to measure the width (w) of the teeth.

Accuracy:0.05mm

- One of the benefits using a caliper is that the gear does not
have to be removed from the machine
- The caliper consists of two adjustable verniers, that
reference two dimensions on the gear and provide a
measurement
- Vertical scale: Measures the depth of the teeth from the top
of the pitch line
- Horizontal scale: This is used to measure the Chordal
Thickness of the gear tooth

 Considering one gear tooth, the

theoretical values of w and d
can be found out which may be
verified by the instrument.
As shown in the figure , w is a
chord
ADB,
but
tooth
thickness is specified as an arc
distance AEB.
Also the depth d adjusted on the
instrument is slightly greater
than the addendum CE",
width w is therefore called
chordal thickness and d is
called the chordal addendum.
W=AB=2AD
=360/4N,
D is on straight line, E is on pitch circle
Where N= number of teeth.

6.Concentricity: The centre about which the gear is

mounted should be coincident with the centre from which the
gear is generated. Otherwise, the gear wheel will not function
correctly because of eccentricity of mounting.
The concentricity of the gear may be readily checked by
mounting the gear between centres and measuring the
variation in height of a roller placed between the successive
teeth.
By rotating the gear, tooth by tooth, dial gauge readings over
the rollers can be noted and plotted in the form of a graph.
The variation in reading obtained will be a function of the
eccentricity present and also of any variation which may be
there in the tooth thickness.

7.Alignment: The alignment of gear w.r.t the axis of

mounting may be checked by placing a parallel bar between
the gear teeth. The gear being mounted between centres.
Readings are taken at the two ends of the bar. Differences in
the readings i.e height of either end of the parallel bar will
indicate presence of misalignment.
8.Composite errors: Variations in manufacturing conditions
may lead to many types of errors in gears.
1.Pitch error: This is a source of gear noise and the character
of noise will depend upon how pitch errors are produced and
how they are distributed.
2.Tooth thickness error: It is the value obtained by
subtracting the design tooth thickness from the actual tooth
thickness measured along the surface of the reference
cylinder.

3. Cyclic error: It is the error occurring during each revolution of

the element under considerations.
4. Periodic error: An error occurring at regular intervals not
necessarily corresponding to one revolution of the component.
5.Runout: It is total range of reading of a fixed indicator with the
contact point applied to a surface rotated, without axial
movement , about a fixed axis.
6.Radial runout: It is the runout measured along perpendicular
to the axis of rotation.
7.Axial runout: It is the runout measured parallel to the axis of
rotation, at a specified distance from the axis.
8.Eccentricity: It is half the radial runout.

The presence of these errors cause interference in efficient

operation of gears. These result in non-smooth and noisy
operation which ultimately effect the working life.
These composite errors can be checked by measuring the
variations of the centre distance when the gear under test is
rolled under spring pressure against a master gear. The test is
generally known as rolling gear test (or) functional test.
Total composite variation is centre distance variation in one
complete revolution of the gear being inspected; where as
tooth to tooth variation is the centre distance variation as the
gear is rotated through an increment of 360/N.
A uniform tooth to tooth variation shows profile variation
while a sudden jump indicates pitch variation.

Master Gears: These gears are made with sufficient accuracy

and can be used as the basis for comparing the accuracy of
other gears.
Master gears are mostly used in composite errors
determination in which the master gears are rotated in close
mesh.
These can also be used for calibration of gear checking
instruments used in shop floor.
Master gears are made from chromium-manganese tool steel
or good quality gauge steel and are hardened and properly
stabilized to relieve internal stresses.

Parkinson gear tester

Developed by James Parkinson. Standard gear on fixed

spindle, gear to be tested on similar spindle mounting on a
sliding carriage. Maintaining the gears in mesh by spring
pressure.
Movements of the sliding carriage as the gears are rotated and
indicated by a dial indicator, and these variations are a
measure of any irregularities in the gear under test, alternatively
a recorder can be fitted, in the form of a waxed circular chart
and records made of the gear variation in accuracy of mesh.
When the waxed paper recorder is fitted, the chart makes a
revolution for each one of the gears mounted on the sliding
carriage.
As the chart moves and rotates, the line traced records the
movements of floating carriage. A circle is drawn at the same
time as the record, as shown in figure.

Limitations of parkinson gear tester

1.Max. 300 mm diameter gear, usually 150mm or smaller
dia. Gears are tested
2.The accuracy of the order of 0.001mm
3.Rolling test does not reveal all errors, since the device is
sensitive to cumulative position errors
4.Errors are not clearly identified for type profile, pitch, helix
and tooth thickness and are indistinguishably mixed
5.Measurements are directly dependent upon the master
hear or reference gear

METROLOGY & INSTRUMENTATION

Assignment II

1.Derive the expression for

a) Effective diameter of thread
b) Diameter of best wire
2.Describe the generalized measurement system with block diagram
3.Classify the types of errors in instruments
4.Write short notes on
Profile projector
Thread pitch gauges
Gear pitch measuring instrument
5.Derive the expressions for chordal addendum and chordal thickness
of gear teeth. Also explain the procedure to find gear thickness using
gear tooth vernier.
6.Explain the principle and operation of Parkinson gear tester with a
diagram

PROCEDURE:
For finding PCD, module, addendum, dedendum and clearance:
1. First find the blank diameter, OD by a vernier caliper and also count the
number of teeth T of the spur gear.
2. Next calculate pitch circle diameter D=(TxOD)/(T+2)
3. Find addendum, clearance, pitch, module and dedendum as per the
formulae given in the theory.
FOR CHORDAL TOOTH THICKNESS (using gear tooth calliper):
1. Set the chordal depth (addendum) on the vertical slide of the gear tooth
vernier and then insert the jaws of the instrument on the tooth to be
measured.
2. Adjust the horizontal vernier slide by the fine adjusting screw so that
the jaws just touch the tooth.
3. Read the horizontal vernier slide and note the reading. It gives the
chordal thickness of tooth.
4. Repeat the observations for the different teeth.
5. Compare the values of different characteristics with the standard value
and set the percentage error.

OBSERVATION:
1. Least count of caliper= 0.02mm
2. Number of teeth= 40
CALCULATIONS:
1. Pitch circle diameter, D=(TxOD)/(T+2)=
2. module, m=D/T mm=
3. Addendum=m=
4. Dedendum=m+0.157m=

Base pitch Pb = Circular pitch Pc x cos = m cos

Where = Pressure angle
For involute spur gear,
Addendum = reciprocal of diametral pitch =D/T =m
Dedendum=Addendum + clearance
Total working height = Addendum + Dedendum
Base diameter = m T cos