UNIT 1

ALLOYS AND PHASE

DIAGRAMS
Solidification
Crystal structures
Structure-property relationships

Sp 05

W. Li

Pure Metal Solidification

Temperature remains
constant while grains
grow.
Some metals undergo
allotropic transformation
in solid state.
For example on cooling
bcc -iron changes to
fcc -iron at 1400 C,
which again to bcc iron at 906 C.

Nucleation and Grain Growth

Nucleation;
Homogeneous nucleation: very pure metal, substantial
undercooling (0.2Tm)
Heterogeneous nucleation: nucleation agents (5C
undercooling)
Grain growth
Planar: pure metal
Dendritic: solid solution
Grain size
depends on number of nuclei and cooling rate.

Crystal Nucleation and Growth

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, by Serope Kalpakjian

Crystal Structure of Metals

Atoms arrange themselves into various orderly configuration, called

crystals.

The arrangement of the atoms in the crystal is called crystalline

structure.

The smallest group of atoms showing the characteristic lattice

structure of a particular metal is known as a unit cell.

Crystal Structure of Metals

Slip Systems

Deformation (dislocation) occurs on preferential

crystallographic planes and directions, called slip systems.

The slip plane/direction is the plane/direction with the most

closely packed atoms.

6x2=12

4x3=12

1x3=3

Slip Systems

BCC has 6 slip planes and 2 slip directions per plane (12
slip systems), but distance between slip planes is small,
therefore the required stress is high. Good Strength and
moderate ductility, e.g. Steel, Titanium, Molybdenum,
Tungsten.

FCC has 4 slip planes and 3 slip directions per plane (12
Slip Systems), but distance between slip planes is larger
than BCC. Therefore, probability of slip is moderate,
shear stress to cause slip is low. Moderate Strength and
Good Ductility, e.g., Aluminum, Copper, Gold, Silver

HCP has 1 slip plane and 3 slip directions on that plane

(3 systems). Low probability of slip. Generally brittle
materials, e.g., Beryllium, Magnesium, and Zinc

Plastic Deformation of Single

Crystals

Theoretical Shear Strength and

Tensile Strength

Theoretical shear stress is the shear stress to cause permanent

deformation in a perfect crystal.

G b
Theoretical
of material
stress
maxor ideal tensile strength
between
G / 10is~the
G /tensile
30
required to break2theaatomic bonds between two neighboring atomic
planes.

The actual strength of metals is approximately one to two orders of

magnitude lower than the theoretical strengths. The discrepancy can be
explained
inmax
terms
E of
/ 10imperfections in the crystal structure.

Solid Solutions

Most metals are not pure but contain a number of other

metallic or non-metallic elements, either alloying elements
or contaminants. Alloying elements are uniformly
distributed in the base metal, forming a solid solution.

Substitutional solid solution

Interstitial solid solution

Effect of Imperfections

Pure metal: dislocation

Solid solutions
Solute atoms of slightly different size distort the lattice and makes dislocation propagation
more difficult, thus strength increases without necessarily reducing ductility.
Interstitial elements play a similar role in impeding dislocation mobility although they can
have an embrittling effect.

Interfaces, inclusions, gases

Grain Size Effect

Grain boundaries present

obstacles to dislocation
propagation. Therefore, it is
generally found that the yield
strength of a material
increase with decreasing
grain size according to the
Hall-Petch equation.

However at low strain rate

and close to Tm, dislocation
is resolved by diffusion.
Material deforms by sliding
of grains or reshaping of
grains. Both processes are
easier if grain size is small.

Phase Diagrams
A phase diagram, also called equilibrium diagram or a constitutional
diagram, graphically illustrates the relationships among temperature,
composition, and the phases present in a particular alloy system.

Lever Rule

The composition of various phases in a phase

diagram can be determined by a procedure
called the lever rule.
C0 C L
S

S L Cs C L

or

C s C0
L

S L Cs CL

Example: Calculate the relative proportions of

the phases in a Cu-Ag alloy of eutectic
composition just below the eutectic temperature.
C E C 71.9 91.2

23.2%
C C 7.9 91.2

The Structure of a Cu-Ag Solid

Solution with 20% Ag

Iron/Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

Nonequilibrium Solidification

Microsegregation or coring

Heat Treatment

Most parts will require heat treatment either after or

during the processing for proper in-service properties

Annealing
Heat to elevated temp, hold, cool
Softens the material and removes stress

Precipitation Hardening
Diffusion of alloys to produce two phase structure that
promote good strength and ductility
(Aging Aluminum for example)

Heat Treatment of Steel

Heat Treatment of Steel (TTT

Diagram)

Summary

Solidification process affects crystal structures

which in turn affect material properties.

Single crystal materials behave very differently

than metal alloys.

The effect of imperfections and grain size in

solid solutions.

Heat treatment can modify material properties

by changing the crystal structure.